The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics (100 page)
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Franco(ism)
Francisco Franco Bahamonde (1892–1975) was born at El Ferrol in north-west Spain, into a middle-class seafaring family, and entered the Toledo Military Academy in 1907, having been a mediocre pupil at school. His determination to succeed in the Army is often attributed to a sense of physical inferiority. At 33 Franco became the youngest general in Europe since Bonaparte. The left branded him ‘the hangman of Asturias’ for the brutal manner of his repression of revolutionary Asturian miners in 1934.
Although Franco was too cautious a man to initiate the right-wing rebellion against the Spanish Republic in 1936, he quickly became the leader of the rebels and in September 1936 was proclaimed ‘
generalissimo
’ of the Nationalist armies and head of state (although he did not govern Spain until the republic fell in 1939).
‘Francoism’ was not a distinctive ideology: Franco stood for traditional Catholic and military values and was an implacable enemy of liberal, left-wing and separatist forces. Francoism as a term is mainly used to refer to Franco's regime. Although this had some features of
fascism
, and its creation relied upon military support from
Hitler
and Mussolini , the regime was authoritarian rather than totalitarian.
Sociologist Juan Linz pointed to the existence of ‘limited pluralism’ within the regime. Franco avoided élite opposition by skilfully playing off different power groups against one another and by tolerating widespread corruption.
RG
Although Franco was too cautious a man to initiate the right-wing rebellion against the Spanish Republic in 1936, he quickly became the leader of the rebels and in September 1936 was proclaimed ‘
generalissimo
’ of the Nationalist armies and head of state (although he did not govern Spain until the republic fell in 1939).
‘Francoism’ was not a distinctive ideology: Franco stood for traditional Catholic and military values and was an implacable enemy of liberal, left-wing and separatist forces. Francoism as a term is mainly used to refer to Franco's regime. Although this had some features of
fascism
, and its creation relied upon military support from
Hitler
and Mussolini , the regime was authoritarian rather than totalitarian.
Sociologist Juan Linz pointed to the existence of ‘limited pluralism’ within the regime. Franco avoided élite opposition by skilfully playing off different power groups against one another and by tolerating widespread corruption.
RG
Frankfurt School
The headquarters of
critical theory
, founded at Frankfurt University in 1923, in exile in the United States from 1935 to 1953, and revitalized in Frankfurt under Jürgen Habermas, who taught there during the 1960s and from 1982.
A number of broad themes can be identified. One is that Marxism and psychoanalysis combine in critical analysis ( see also
Adorno
; authoritarian personality). In Habermas's work psychoanalysis, which seeks freedom from control by repressed forces, is a model for emancipation. His focus on language has produced an interest in ‘systematically distorted communication’ to be countered by ‘ideal speech situations’ through which all can participate in dialogue. All this is central to the idea of an emancipatory role for critical theory. This lead to a theory of ‘communicative action’ directed at the co-operative realization of understanding between participants. ‘Legitimation crisis’ is an important concept for the analysis of late capitalism. Here Habermas suggests that rulers may be unable to generate the consent and commitment of the ruled.
IO
critical theory
, founded at Frankfurt University in 1923, in exile in the United States from 1935 to 1953, and revitalized in Frankfurt under Jürgen Habermas, who taught there during the 1960s and from 1982.
A number of broad themes can be identified. One is that Marxism and psychoanalysis combine in critical analysis ( see also
Adorno
; authoritarian personality). In Habermas's work psychoanalysis, which seeks freedom from control by repressed forces, is a model for emancipation. His focus on language has produced an interest in ‘systematically distorted communication’ to be countered by ‘ideal speech situations’ through which all can participate in dialogue. All this is central to the idea of an emancipatory role for critical theory. This lead to a theory of ‘communicative action’ directed at the co-operative realization of understanding between participants. ‘Legitimation crisis’ is an important concept for the analysis of late capitalism. Here Habermas suggests that rulers may be unable to generate the consent and commitment of the ruled.
IO
Franklin , Benjamin
(1706–90)
US politician and scientist. Franklin trained as a printer, and gained great popularity by the homespun philosophy of
Poor Richard's Almanack
(1732–67). Homespun philosophy matched a homespun personal style, which Franklin wielded to great effect in London and Paris, where he was sent as the first ambassador of the independent United States. As with
Gandhi
, however, the calculated homespun style concealed a sophisticated intelligence, which Franklin put to work not only in science (through his invention of the lightning-conductor) but also in politics, notably as the oldest and most revered member of the Constitutional Convention of 1787.
US politician and scientist. Franklin trained as a printer, and gained great popularity by the homespun philosophy of
Poor Richard's Almanack
(1732–67). Homespun philosophy matched a homespun personal style, which Franklin wielded to great effect in London and Paris, where he was sent as the first ambassador of the independent United States. As with
Gandhi
, however, the calculated homespun style concealed a sophisticated intelligence, which Franklin put to work not only in science (through his invention of the lightning-conductor) but also in politics, notably as the oldest and most revered member of the Constitutional Convention of 1787.
fraternity
Brotherhood among a disparate body of people united in their interests, aims, beliefs, and so on. Although ‘fraternity’ was a political goal at a time when politics was dominated by men, no contemporary contrast with ‘sisterhood’ is intended by most of those who today embrace fraternity. The goal, rather, is to instantiate in the wider community the sorts of feelings for each other, and the sorts of behaviour towards each other, that brothers and sisters are taken to have or display. This has commonly been thought to be impossible without greater
equality
, and one defence of that value is that it facilitates fraternity. Characterizing the sentiment and behaviour need not romanticize the family. What appears to be intended is a conscious or unconscious setting aside of calculations of self-interest for a greater willingness to recognize that others, too, have their projects and concerns. To this extent ‘fraternity’ suggests greater
altruism
. But it also suggests some shared purposes, to be jointly pursued, so its antithesis would be self-absorption. In particular, perhaps, it suggests a common concern with the circumstances in which each person can develop most fully or most satisfyingly. Finally, it suggests a sense of belonging to a unit with which one can readily, if not naturally, identify: the community is a sort of extended family, rather than an ‘anonymous’ society outside it.
AR
equality
, and one defence of that value is that it facilitates fraternity. Characterizing the sentiment and behaviour need not romanticize the family. What appears to be intended is a conscious or unconscious setting aside of calculations of self-interest for a greater willingness to recognize that others, too, have their projects and concerns. To this extent ‘fraternity’ suggests greater
altruism
. But it also suggests some shared purposes, to be jointly pursued, so its antithesis would be self-absorption. In particular, perhaps, it suggests a common concern with the circumstances in which each person can develop most fully or most satisfyingly. Finally, it suggests a sense of belonging to a unit with which one can readily, if not naturally, identify: the community is a sort of extended family, rather than an ‘anonymous’ society outside it.
AR
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