The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics (163 page)
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market
The analogy between political exchange and market exchange has occurred to many thinkers over the centuries but has been formalized this century ( see also
economic man
;
exchange theory
). Politics has been conducted in the marketplaces of cities at least since the ancient Greeks. In the market analogy, voters are compared with consumers, organized interests with producers of goods, and politicians with entrepreneurs and shopkeepers. Each political actor is regarded as maximizing utility, subject to a budget constraint (that is, with only a limited amount of money or number of votes to dispose of). Like any analogy, that from the market to politics can be dangerous if followed too slavishly.
economic man
;
exchange theory
). Politics has been conducted in the marketplaces of cities at least since the ancient Greeks. In the market analogy, voters are compared with consumers, organized interests with producers of goods, and politicians with entrepreneurs and shopkeepers. Each political actor is regarded as maximizing utility, subject to a budget constraint (that is, with only a limited amount of money or number of votes to dispose of). Like any analogy, that from the market to politics can be dangerous if followed too slavishly.
market socialism
The doctrine that socialism can and should be achieved without a massive state apparatus. Market socialists believe that while capital can and should be owned co-operatively, or in some cases by the state, decisions about production and exchange should be left to market forces and not planned centrally. Market socialism is intertwined with
industrial democracy
because the most difficult practical questions often turn out to be: If capital is co-operatively owned, who decides how to dispose of it? And do co-operators get one vote each, or votes in proportion to the capital they have contributed? Robert Nozick has argued (in
Anarchy, State and Utopia
) that the comparative scarcity of producer co-operatives shows that people have freely chosen to live under capitalism instead. Market socialists such as D. L. Miller have denied this, arguing that a capitalist economy is structurally biased against market socialist enterprises.
industrial democracy
because the most difficult practical questions often turn out to be: If capital is co-operatively owned, who decides how to dispose of it? And do co-operators get one vote each, or votes in proportion to the capital they have contributed? Robert Nozick has argued (in
Anarchy, State and Utopia
) that the comparative scarcity of producer co-operatives shows that people have freely chosen to live under capitalism instead. Market socialists such as D. L. Miller have denied this, arguing that a capitalist economy is structurally biased against market socialist enterprises.
Marshall Aid
The Marshall Plan—formally known as the European Recovery Programme— was announced by the US Secretary of State, George C. Marshall on 5 June 1947. Sixteen European states—Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Eire, France, Greece, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Switzerland, Sweden, Turkey, and the United Kingdom—became the beneficiaries of American grants. Although the sixteen nations (plus the German Federal Republic represented by the occupying powers) initially requested a total of $29 billion to cover each country's deficit over the period 1948–52, only $12.5 billion was actually delivered. Marshall Aid was phased out in mid-1951 and was replaced by Mutual Security Assistance which extended substantial military aid to Western Europe. Although the Marshall Plan has been dubbed the ‘most selfless act in history’, it was introduced not only to safeguard America's strategic political and military interests in Western Europe but also to take account of the need of the US to maintain its colossal export surplus in the face of a predicted domestic recession. A lively debate has developed over whether a Marshall Aid-type scheme should be extended to Russia and the former communist states of Eastern Europe.
PBm
PBm
Marsiglio
(Marsilius)
of Padua
(Marsilius)
of Padua
(
c.
1275–
c.
1342)
Philosopher involved in politics. He studied medicine and natural philosophy in Italy; and was rector of the university of Paris (1312–13). With the Aristotelian, John of Laudun, he wrote an antipapal treatise,
Defensor Pacis
(Defender of the Peace) (1324). It was condemned in 1327. Meanwhile he and John fled to the protection of the antipapalist, Ludwig of Bavaria. When, by popular acclaim Ludwig was elected emperor (and likewise Nicholas V), the pair were given bishoprics.
Marsiglio maintained that all civil strife is caused by religious conflict. This is caused by the Church claiming temporal power, which it does not and should not have, since its role is spiritual. The only power is coercive power, and only the State has that. The Church is not a perfect society (as
Aquinas
held); the clergy are part of the State. Christ and the apostles submitted to the State. The papacy is not a divine institution and has no right to intervene in secular matters. The pope and the clergy must be elected. Evangelical law is prescriptive; canon and conciliar law have no force, since they have no coercive power in this life. Only law backed by power has the force of law.
Natural law is positive law agreed by all nations (
ius gentium
). The governing power (
legislator
) is either the whole people or their representative (
pars valentior
). The executive (
pars principans
) is appointed and removed by the
legislator
. An elected is better than an accepted government. The relationship between the executive and
legislator
is pragmatic, not contractual. The judiciary is part of the executive. This is not merely antipapal but a radical secular theory.
CB
c.
1275–
c.
1342)
Philosopher involved in politics. He studied medicine and natural philosophy in Italy; and was rector of the university of Paris (1312–13). With the Aristotelian, John of Laudun, he wrote an antipapal treatise,
Defensor Pacis
(Defender of the Peace) (1324). It was condemned in 1327. Meanwhile he and John fled to the protection of the antipapalist, Ludwig of Bavaria. When, by popular acclaim Ludwig was elected emperor (and likewise Nicholas V), the pair were given bishoprics.
Marsiglio maintained that all civil strife is caused by religious conflict. This is caused by the Church claiming temporal power, which it does not and should not have, since its role is spiritual. The only power is coercive power, and only the State has that. The Church is not a perfect society (as
Aquinas
held); the clergy are part of the State. Christ and the apostles submitted to the State. The papacy is not a divine institution and has no right to intervene in secular matters. The pope and the clergy must be elected. Evangelical law is prescriptive; canon and conciliar law have no force, since they have no coercive power in this life. Only law backed by power has the force of law.
Natural law is positive law agreed by all nations (
ius gentium
). The governing power (
legislator
) is either the whole people or their representative (
pars valentior
). The executive (
pars principans
) is appointed and removed by the
legislator
. An elected is better than an accepted government. The relationship between the executive and
legislator
is pragmatic, not contractual. The judiciary is part of the executive. This is not merely antipapal but a radical secular theory.
CB
martial law
The resort to military force as a temporary expedient in exceptional circumstances to restore order and uphold civilian government. Troops may be deployed or the constitution suspended with the military assuming some or all of the functions of government.
IC
IC
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