The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics (255 page)
Read The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics Online
Authors: Iain McLean
BOOK: The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics
13.68Mb size Format: txt, pdf, ePub
Socrates
(469–399BC )
Greek philosopher. In 399 BC he was put to death by the Athenian democracy on a charge of failing to worship the city's gods, introducing new deities, and corrupting the youth. It was commonly accepted that political motives lay behind the indictment (and religion in any case was a state concern). Socrates taught that politics is an art which requires for its basis knowledge of the good; most people, however, including most contemporary politicians, do not possess this knowledge and thus cannot acquire the political art. Such views ran counter to the Athenian democratic ideal, which required that in matters of general policy each man's voice carry equal weight, and he was linked with the oligarchic faction which had briefly ruled Athens in 411 BC and 404–403BC and which was still perceived as a danger. Its numbers also included several of his former associates. His death raises questions about the threat intellectuals may be thought to pose to the political order.
Socrates nevertheless believed that each citizen owed his state obedience in all matters which did not contradict his conscience. He consequently refused offers to help him escape from prison, giving three main reasons:
Greek philosopher. In 399 BC he was put to death by the Athenian democracy on a charge of failing to worship the city's gods, introducing new deities, and corrupting the youth. It was commonly accepted that political motives lay behind the indictment (and religion in any case was a state concern). Socrates taught that politics is an art which requires for its basis knowledge of the good; most people, however, including most contemporary politicians, do not possess this knowledge and thus cannot acquire the political art. Such views ran counter to the Athenian democratic ideal, which required that in matters of general policy each man's voice carry equal weight, and he was linked with the oligarchic faction which had briefly ruled Athens in 411 BC and 404–403BC and which was still perceived as a danger. Its numbers also included several of his former associates. His death raises questions about the threat intellectuals may be thought to pose to the political order.
Socrates nevertheless believed that each citizen owed his state obedience in all matters which did not contradict his conscience. He consequently refused offers to help him escape from prison, giving three main reasons:
(1) The relation between state and citizen is the unequal one of parent and child: the citizen owes the state gratitude for his upbringing.AH
(2) By freely electing to remain in Athens and receive the benefits of her protection, he has made an implicit contract with her to abide by her laws (compare
Locke
on
consent
).
(3) To break any of the state's laws, even if they are wrongly administered, would result in a dangerous undermining of the authority of law
per se
.
Solidarity
An independent union formed in Poland in 1980 under the leadership of Lech Walesa , Solidarity tapped into the public's disaffection with communist power. Following mass strikes, the communist regime was forced into unprecendent concessions to society. Although after martial law in 1981, the union was banned, its legacy devastated communism in Poland. It was allowed to re-form in 1986, and was a partner in the Round Table talks which led to the orderly withdrawal of one-party rule beginning in 1988. Once Poland faced its first fully democratic elections, Solidarity split up into its component interest groups.
SWh
SWh
Sombart , Werner
(1863–1941)
German social theorist. Opponent of
Marxism
, because he denied the universal applicability of Marx's historical materialism. Well known for his book
Why Is There No Socialism in the United States?
: if (at least crude versions of) historical materialism were correct, the United States as the most advanced capitalist country ought to have the most advanced socialist movement.
German social theorist. Opponent of
Marxism
, because he denied the universal applicability of Marx's historical materialism. Well known for his book
Why Is There No Socialism in the United States?
: if (at least crude versions of) historical materialism were correct, the United States as the most advanced capitalist country ought to have the most advanced socialist movement.
sophists
The sophists were professional itinerant teachers and philosophers, who flourished in Greece from
c.
450–400BC. A fair appraisal of their work is difficult: our main source is
Plato
, who is generally biased against them. They did not form a school, but differed widely in their interests and philosophical positions. Their main market, however, consisted of wealthy young men who desired political influence; consequently almost all were concerned to teach the rhetorical skills politics required. Such skills were particularly in demand in democratic Athens, and this became their unofficial centre.
Their subject-matter included metaphysics, epistemology, and linguistics, but the main focus was the relation between individual and society. Central to this relation was, they believed, the relation between ‘
nature
’ and ‘convention’. Protagoras held that though the social virtues are not themselves innate, the capacity to acquire them is, and we all need to develop such virtues if we are to flourish both individually and as a species. In contrast, Antiphon argued that by nature we all pursue our own advantage, and that most man-made laws are inimical to this pursuit and should be evaded if we can escape detection. Some sophists took this view further and claimed that the dictates of nature represented a ‘natural justice’ which endorsed the supremacy of the strong over the weak. Others opted for a
social contract
theory by means of which individuals agree to forgo the ultimate good of committing conventional injustice in order to avoid the ultimate evil of suffering it.
AH
c.
450–400BC. A fair appraisal of their work is difficult: our main source is
Plato
, who is generally biased against them. They did not form a school, but differed widely in their interests and philosophical positions. Their main market, however, consisted of wealthy young men who desired political influence; consequently almost all were concerned to teach the rhetorical skills politics required. Such skills were particularly in demand in democratic Athens, and this became their unofficial centre.
Their subject-matter included metaphysics, epistemology, and linguistics, but the main focus was the relation between individual and society. Central to this relation was, they believed, the relation between ‘
nature
’ and ‘convention’. Protagoras held that though the social virtues are not themselves innate, the capacity to acquire them is, and we all need to develop such virtues if we are to flourish both individually and as a species. In contrast, Antiphon argued that by nature we all pursue our own advantage, and that most man-made laws are inimical to this pursuit and should be evaded if we can escape detection. Some sophists took this view further and claimed that the dictates of nature represented a ‘natural justice’ which endorsed the supremacy of the strong over the weak. Others opted for a
social contract
theory by means of which individuals agree to forgo the ultimate good of committing conventional injustice in order to avoid the ultimate evil of suffering it.
AH
Other books
Billionaire Stepbrother: Spring (Our Forbidden Year Book 4) by Beaumont, Emilia
Meeting in Madrid by Jean S. MacLeod
The Fall by John Lescroart
Summer of the Wolves by Polly Carlson-Voiles
Little White Lies by Jessica Burkhart
Sea of Desire by Christine Dorsey
Quilts: Their Story and How to Make Them by Marie D. Webster, Rosalind W. Perry
The Prince Deceiver (The Silk & Steel Saga Book 6) by Karen Azinger
Three Houses by Angela Thirkell
Snow Falling on Cedars by David Guterson