The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics (46 page)
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collective responsibility
A convention applied in the operations of the UK cabinet that decisions on important issues of policy should not be taken by individual ministers in advance of cabinet meetings, and that decisions, once taken in cabinet, should be actively supported by all members of the government. The importance of the convention in the United Kingdom is reflected in the fact that failure to observe it in both speeches and parliamentary voting normally obliges ministers to resign. Rigorous observation of the convention is believed to be necessary to maintain stable government, and has been followed by the shadow cabinet, wishing to offer a stable alternative government for the next election. Critics suggest that its observation stifles political debate and provides a cloak of legitimacy for policies pursued by a prime minister which may in reality be opposed by the majority of his or her government. However, the relaxation of the convention is routine in the case of private member's bills, and has occurred exceptionally in cases of a government being completely split on a major policy, which may bring about its demise. For example, the cabinet of 1974–5 allowed members of the government to follow their conscience in the referendum on membership of the EEC (now the EU).
JBr
JBr
collective security
A system for maintaining world peace and security by the concerned action and agreement of all nations. The central idea of collective security is to institutionalize a permanent arrangement of the
balance of power
in which the entire international community agrees to oppose military aggression by any member. The logic of the scheme is that no state can stand up to all of the other members of the system together, and that aggression will therefore be permanently deterred (an assumption made difficult when there are nuclear powers in the system). The necessary conditions for collective security are very demanding. First, all states must accept the
status quo
sufficiently to renounce the use of force for any purpose other than defence of their own territory. Second, all states must agree on a clear definition of aggression so that paralysis can be avoided if cases arise. Third, all states, and especially the large powers, must be willing to commit their own armed forces and/or funds (or to create, pay for, and find means of controlling, an international armed force) to prevent aggression even if it is remote from, or opposed to, their immediate interests. Fourth, all states must prevent actively any breaches of sanctions that might assist the declared outlaw. Attempts by the
League of Nations
to implement collective security failed because of inability to meet these conditions. The United Nations Security Council is a mechanism for collective security, and its operation in 1991 against Iraq's invasion of Kuwait might be seen as an instance of successful implementation of the idea.
BB
balance of power
in which the entire international community agrees to oppose military aggression by any member. The logic of the scheme is that no state can stand up to all of the other members of the system together, and that aggression will therefore be permanently deterred (an assumption made difficult when there are nuclear powers in the system). The necessary conditions for collective security are very demanding. First, all states must accept the
status quo
sufficiently to renounce the use of force for any purpose other than defence of their own territory. Second, all states must agree on a clear definition of aggression so that paralysis can be avoided if cases arise. Third, all states, and especially the large powers, must be willing to commit their own armed forces and/or funds (or to create, pay for, and find means of controlling, an international armed force) to prevent aggression even if it is remote from, or opposed to, their immediate interests. Fourth, all states must prevent actively any breaches of sanctions that might assist the declared outlaw. Attempts by the
League of Nations
to implement collective security failed because of inability to meet these conditions. The United Nations Security Council is a mechanism for collective security, and its operation in 1991 against Iraq's invasion of Kuwait might be seen as an instance of successful implementation of the idea.
BB
collectivism
Originally used in reference to
Bakunin's
anarchism
, collectivism in political terms affirmed the moral status of the collective, a freely formed and self-governing association, in contrast to the primacy of the individual or of the state. However, since the late nineteenth century collectivism has come to refer to a set of related propositions on goals and procedures of decision-making appropriate to modern industrial society. First, collectivism is often used to refer to any doctrine which argues for the priority of some version of ‘the public good’ over individual interests. In particular, collectivism is associated with the goal of equality among citizens. Secondly, the pursuit of these goals is seen to require the extension of public responsibility and state intervention in the form of regulations, subsidies, or public ownership. Thirdly, the substitution of market allocation by administrative decision-making has generated an association between collectivism, bureaucracy, and the centralization of power. A more precise understanding of the concept is as a theory of representation in industrial society (see S. Beer ,
Modern British Politics
, 1965). In this sense, collectivism involves the incorporation of organized producer groups into policy construction and government administration, often referred to as ‘functional representation’ ( See also
corporatism
).
Collectivism has therefore emerged as a somewhat ill-defined term to designate various features of modern political life. In recent years, the institutions and principles of collectivism have come under considerable rhetorical attack from neoliberal critics throughout the West, although the prominence of the state and of organized interest groups have proven extremely resilient.
SW
Bakunin's
anarchism
, collectivism in political terms affirmed the moral status of the collective, a freely formed and self-governing association, in contrast to the primacy of the individual or of the state. However, since the late nineteenth century collectivism has come to refer to a set of related propositions on goals and procedures of decision-making appropriate to modern industrial society. First, collectivism is often used to refer to any doctrine which argues for the priority of some version of ‘the public good’ over individual interests. In particular, collectivism is associated with the goal of equality among citizens. Secondly, the pursuit of these goals is seen to require the extension of public responsibility and state intervention in the form of regulations, subsidies, or public ownership. Thirdly, the substitution of market allocation by administrative decision-making has generated an association between collectivism, bureaucracy, and the centralization of power. A more precise understanding of the concept is as a theory of representation in industrial society (see S. Beer ,
Modern British Politics
, 1965). In this sense, collectivism involves the incorporation of organized producer groups into policy construction and government administration, often referred to as ‘functional representation’ ( See also
corporatism
).
Collectivism has therefore emerged as a somewhat ill-defined term to designate various features of modern political life. In recent years, the institutions and principles of collectivism have come under considerable rhetorical attack from neoliberal critics throughout the West, although the prominence of the state and of organized interest groups have proven extremely resilient.
SW
collectivization
The process of abolishing private ownership of land in favour of state or (supposedly) communal ownership. Following the difficulties in procurement of agricultural products in the Soviet Union in 1927–8, Stalin led the party towards full collectivization of the peasantry in 1929. Large collective farms (
kolkhozy
) were established based on expropriated land on which peasants were then effectively employed, although officially the peasantry comprised a distinct class from other state employees. In line with the campaigning spirit of the times, collectivization proceeded as rapidly as possible, and all goods and livestock were initially appropriated. Many of the best (and sometimes wealthiest) farmers were designated
kulaks
and exiled or killed, as part of the drive to ‘liquidate the kulaks as a class’. Some relaxation of life for the peasantry occurred subsequently, but those who survived were unable, until the 1960s, to move to other jobs without official permission. The policy did immense damage to agricultural production, by destroying the peasants' skills and their attachment to the land. Moreover, with further relaxation of state control, farm output stagnated as peasants worked the private plots they had been allowed. Ironically, and partly as a result of the abandonment of farming by the most able, efforts to abolish collective farms now face considerable opposition from those who fear the operation of the market.
SWh
kolkhozy
) were established based on expropriated land on which peasants were then effectively employed, although officially the peasantry comprised a distinct class from other state employees. In line with the campaigning spirit of the times, collectivization proceeded as rapidly as possible, and all goods and livestock were initially appropriated. Many of the best (and sometimes wealthiest) farmers were designated
kulaks
and exiled or killed, as part of the drive to ‘liquidate the kulaks as a class’. Some relaxation of life for the peasantry occurred subsequently, but those who survived were unable, until the 1960s, to move to other jobs without official permission. The policy did immense damage to agricultural production, by destroying the peasants' skills and their attachment to the land. Moreover, with further relaxation of state control, farm output stagnated as peasants worked the private plots they had been allowed. Ironically, and partly as a result of the abandonment of farming by the most able, efforts to abolish collective farms now face considerable opposition from those who fear the operation of the market.
SWh
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