To Explain the World: The Discovery of Modern Science (72 page)

inverse square law of gravitation, 227–31, 235, 237

Io (moon of Jupiter), 177–78, 221–22, 359

irrational numbers, 17–18, 284–86

Isfahan, 108–10

Islam, xiv, 26, 101–23

science vs. religion and, 118–23, 131, 188

Sunni vs. Shiite, 104

Jabir ibn Hayyan, 110–11, 218n

Jardine, N., 376

Jefferson, Thomas, 46–47

Jesuits, 40n, 158, 181–82

Jews, 61, 105, 114, 126

John of Dumbleton, 138–39

John of Philoponus, 51, 133

John Paul II, Pope, 187

Johnsson, Ivar, 161

John XXI, Pope, 129

John XXII, Pope, 130

Jordan, Pascual, 261

Journal des Sçavans
, 197

Julian, emperor of Rome, 48

Jupiter, 77, 167

Aristotle and, 84–85

conjunction of Saturn and, 159

Copernicus and, 148–51

distance from Sun, 163n

epicycles and, 303–6

Halley’s comet and, 247

Kepler and, 162, 163n, 171

moons of, 177–78, 221–22, 236–37, 359, 363–64

Newton and, 236–39

Ptolemy and, 89, 94, 149, 255

Justinian, emperor of Rome, 51, 104

Keill, John, 225

Kepler, Johannes, 40, 79, 141, 146, 153, 267

Copernicus and, 156, 170, 172, 255

elliptical orbits and, 59, 91–92, 95, 161–73, 325

equal-area rule and, 231–32

Galileo and, 173, 179–81

Newton and, 99, 226–32, 235–37, 241, 248, 249

supernova and, 166

telescope, 180–81, 219, 329, 334–35

Tycho and, 161, 165–69

Kepler’s laws of planetary motion, 99, 188, 227n, 235–37

first, 167, 172, 188, 227n, 236, 323

second, 168–70, 172, 188, 227n, 236–37, 323–25

third, 170–72, 188, 227–31, 236

Keynes, John Maynard, 216

Khayyam, Omar, 109–10, 119

Kilwardy, Robert, 129

kinetic energy, 197, 339–40

kosmos
, 6n, 10, 12, 64–66

Koyré, Alexandre, 45, 370

Kuhn, Thomas, 28–29, 369, 377, 378

Lactantius, 49, 66, 183

Laplace, Pierre-Simon, 250

Laskar, Jacques, 245n

Laudan, Laurens, 213, 380

Lavoisier, Antoine, 11, 259

Laws
(Plato), 47

leap year, 60

Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm, 224–25, 233, 246–48, 251

lenses, 79, 174–75, 329–33, 336

Leonardo da Vinci, 202

Letter to Christina
(Galileo), 183, 187

Leucippus, 7, 44, 260

Leverrier, Jean-Joseph, 250

Libri, Giulio, 180

Light of the Moon, The
(al-Haitam), 110

Light of the Stars, The
(al-Haitam), 110

light.
See also
optics; reflection; refraction

Descartes and, 206–8, 348

Einstein and, 252

electromagnetism and, 268

energy and, 261

field concept and, 250

Greeks and, 35–37

Grosseteste and, 137

Huygens and, 196–97, 208, 220–23

Newton and, 218, 220–23

speed of, 37, 204, 207–8, 221–22, 259, 348, 358–59

wave theory of, 36, 196–97, 208, 220–23, 221–22, 279, 281, 356–58

limits, 224n, 236, 315

Lindberg, David, 29–30, 132, 369, 375, 377

Linnaeus, Carl, 265

Livy, 39

Lloyd, G. E. R., 379

logarithm, 223n

Lorentz, Hendrik, 34

Louis XI, king of France, 253

Lucas, Henry, 217

Lucretius, 46

luminosity, 87

magnitude and, 88n

Luther, Martin, 155–56, 183

Lyceum, 22, 32–33, 66, 75

M31 (galaxy), 108

Machiavelli, Niccolò, 46

magnetic field, 109, 220, 250, 257–58, 263

magnetism, xiv, 170, 237, 257–59, 268.
See also
electromagnetism

magnification, 174–75, 219, 334–36

magnitude of stars, 88n

Maimon, Moses ben (Maimonides), 98, 114–15

Malebranche, Nicolas de, 122, 246

Marcellus, Claudius Marcus, 39, 71

Maria Celeste, Sister, 187

mariners, 65, 175

Marriage of Mercury and Philology, The
(Martianus Capella), 124

Mars, 77, 245n

apparent retrograde motion of, 90, 148

brightness of, 87

Copernicus and, 148–51

distance to, 239–40

eccentricity of orbit, 167

epicycles and, 303–6

Greeks and, 81–82, 84, 87–90, 94

as ideal test case, 165n

Kepler and, 162, 165, 169

Ptolemy and, 89, 90, 94, 255

sidereal period of, 171

Martianus Capella, 124–25

Martinez, A. M., 269, 368

mass, 232–33, 237–38

mathematics, 1.
See also
algebra; calculus; geometry;
and specific individuals and theories

Arabs and, 105–7, 111, 117, 123

Babylonian, 15

Copernicus and, 158–59

Descartes and, 203, 213–14

Einstein and, 253

field approach and, 250

Galileo and, 172, 179

Glaber, Raoul (Radulfus), 125

Greeks and, 15–21, 35, 39–40, 47, 63, 65–70, 79, 105

Kepler and, 161–62, 255

medieval Europe and, 126, 137–40

Neoplatonists and, 47

Newton and, 218, 223–25, 246, 253

Ptolemaic models and, 79–80, 88–99

Pythagoreans and, 16–18

role of, in science, xv, 19–21, 79, 101, 140, 146, 197

matter

alchemists and, 11

Aristotle and, 64–65

atomic theory of, 259–60

dark matter and, 9

early Greeks and, 4–14, 44–45

Newton and, 256–57

Plato and, 10, 13

Matthews, Michael, 30, 369

Maxwell, James Clerk, 220, 258–60, 267

Maxwell’s equations, 258n

Mayr, Simon, 177n

mean speed theorem, 138–41, 191–92, 313–15

Mechanice syntaxism
(Philo), 35

medicine, 41–43, 106, 111–12, 114–16, 118, 141

medieval Europe, xiv, 26–28, 101, 124–43

Melanchthon, Philipp, 155, 157, 158, 161

mercury, 11, 198–200

Mercury, 77, 165n, 245n, 250

apparent retrograde motion of, 148

Aristotle and, 84–85

Copernicus and, 86, 148–51, 155

eccentricity of orbit, 167, 324

elongations and orbit of, 320–21

epicycles and, 303–5

Greek models and, 81–82, 84–86, 88–91, 94, 124

Kepler and, 162–63, 171–72

Ptolemy and, 88–91, 94, 149, 155, 255

Mersenne, Marin, 16

Merton, Robert, 253, 382

Merton, Walter de, 138

Merton College, Oxford, 138–41, 191

Merton thesis, 253

Mesopotamia, 104, 107, 110

Metaphysics
(Aristotle), 4, 16, 83–84

Meteorology
(Aristotle), 127

Meteorology
(Descartes), 208

Metonic cycle, 60–61

Meton of Athens, 60

metric system, 240–41

microwave radar, 180

Midsummer Night’s Dream, A
(Shakespeare), 34

Miletus, 3–4, 7–8, 11, 33, 254

Milky Way, 128, 176

Millikan, Robert, 260

mirrors, 35–38, 289–91, 348

curved, 37–38, 79

telescope and, 79, 219

modern science, xiii–xiv, 254–55

beginning of, in 17th century, 189–200

Descartes and, 212

early Greeks and, 11–12

Galileo and, 172, 190

Huygens and, 197

impersonal nature of, 254

Newton and, 216

molecules, 249, 259, 262, 266

momentum, 133–34, 232, 234–35.
See also
impetus

conservation of, 362–63

Monde, Le
(Descartes), 203

Montaigne, Michel de, 46

Moon

Arabs and, 114, 117

Aristarchus on size and distance of, 295–301

Aristotle on, 10, 84, 10, 159

bright side of, 63

calendar and, 59–60

Copernicus and, 151

distance from Earth, 53, 63, 66–68, 72–73, 83, 94, 239, 364

Earth’s equatorial bulge and, 153

eclipses of, 59n, 63–64

Galileo and, 175–76, 337–39

Greeks and, 10, 53, 53, 57, 59, 77, 79–82, 84

Kepler and, 237

Newton and, 196, 228–30, 235, 237, 242–44, 250, 361–62

parallax and, 239, 323, 307–9

phases of, 59, 66, 179–80

Ptolemy and, 88, 91, 93–94, 117

Pythagoreans and, 78

size of, 63, 68–69, 75, 83, 295–301

solar eclipse and, 298

spherical shape of, 66

surface of, 128, 175–76, 337–39

terminator and, 175–76, 337–38

tides and, 184–85, 242–43

Tycho and, 160

More, Thomas, 46

Morison, Samuel Eliot, 65n

Morocco, 104–5, 116

motion.
See also
falling bodies; momentum; planetary motion;
and specific types

Aristotle on, 19, 25–29, 51, 129, 133

Galileo and expermental study of, 172, 187, 190–95