Plagues in World History (41 page)

33. Arnold,
Colonizing the Body
, 116–58; Myron Echenberg,
Plague Ports: The Global Urban Impact of Bubonic Plague, 1894–1901
(New York: New York University Press, 2007), 174–77.

34. Hopkins,
The Greatest Killer
, 304–10.

35. Lawrence K. Altman, “W.H.O. Panel Backs Gene Manipulation in Smallpox Virus,”
New York Times
, November 12, 2004.

1. E. Fuller Torrey and Robert H. Yolken,
Beasts of the Earth: Animals, Humans, and Disease
(New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2005), 42–43.

2. B. Rothschild et al., “Mycobacterium Tuberculosis Complex DNA from an Extinct Bison Dated 17,000 Years before the Present,”
Clinical Infectious Diseases
33 (2001): 305–11.

3. John Hatcher, “Mortality in the Fifteenth Century: Some New Evidence,”
Economic History Review
39 (1986): 30.

4. Rene Dubos and Jean Dubos,
The White Plague: Tuberculosis, Man and Society (Boston: Little, Brown, 1952), 8; T. M. Daniel,
Captain of Death: The Story of Tuberculosis
(Rochester, N.Y.: University of Rochester Press, 1997), 27.

5. Dubos and Dubos,
White Plague
, 8; Daniel,
Captain of Death
, 30; F. B. Smith, The Retreat of Tuberculosis, 1850–1950
(London: Croom Helm, 1988), 4–9; Jo N. Hays, Epidemics and Pandemics: Their Impacts on Human History
(Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC–CLIO, 2005), 201.

6. Thomas Dormandy,
The White Death: A History of Tuberculosis
(New York: New York University Press, 2000), 139–46; Smith,
Retreat of Tuberculosis
, 56–62.

7. Frank Ryan,
The Forgotten Plague: How the Battle against Tuberculosis Was Won—and Lost
(Boston: Little, Brown, 1992), 31–48, 209–23.

8. Dubos and Dubos,
White Plague
, 154–72; Dormandy,
White Death
, 339–49; Lee B. Reichman and Janice Hopkins Tanne,
Timebomb: The Global Epidemic of Multi-Drug Resistant Tuberculosis
(New York: McGraw-Hill, 2002), 30–35.

9. Dubos and Dubos,
White Plague
, 28–43, 94–128; Smith,
Retreat of Tuberculosis
, 166–211; David S. Barnes,
The Making of a Social Disease: Tuberculosis in Nineteenth-Century France
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 23–47, 138–73; Dormandy,
White Death
, 73–84.

10. Reichman and Tanne,
Timebomb
, 87–107.

11. Barnes,
Making of a Social Disease
, 74–111.

12. Reichman and Tanne,
Timebomb
, 43–62.

13. Dubos and Dubos,
White Plague
, 69–76.

14. Dubos and Dubos,
White Plague
, 173–81; Mark Caldwell,
The Last Crusade: The War on Consumption, 1862–1954
(New York: Atheneum, 1988), 40–151; Smith,
Retreat of Tuberculosis
, 97–135; Dormandy,
White Death
, 147–86.

202 y Notes to Pages 93–100

15. Smith,
Retreat of Tuberculosis
, 142–45; Dormandy,
White Death
, 249–63, 351–60.

16. Hays,
Epidemics and Pandemics
, 208–9.

17. Dubos and Dubos,
White Plague
, 197–207; Smith,
Retreat of Tuberculosis
, 212–35; Barnes,
Making of a Social Disease
, 112–37.

18. Dormandy,
White Death
, 13–25. See also Susan Sontag’s
Illness as Metaphor
(New York: Picador/Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1977), where she discusses tuberculosis as a “metaphor” for the myth of a romantic death, in contrast to cancer.

19. Dubos and Dubos,
White Plague
, 11–27, 44–66; Dormandy,
White Death
, 13–25, 85–100.

20. Paul Barber,
Vampires, Burial, and Death
(New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1988), 115.

21. Michael E. Bell,
Food for the Dead: On the Trail of New England’s Vampires
(New York: Carroll and Graf, 2001); Joseph A. Citro,
Passing Strange: True Tales of New England Hauntings and Horrors
(Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1996), 204–19; Joseph A. Citro,
Green Mountain Ghosts, Ghouls and Unsolved Mysteries
(Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1994), 68–72.

22. This information is available at the WHO website, www.who.int/mediacentre/

factsheets/fs104/en.

23. This epidemic is discussed at some length in the following works: Ryan,
Forgotten Plague
, 389–411; Richard Coker,
From Chaos to Coercion: Detention and the Control of Tuberculosis
(New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2000); Reichman and Tanne,
Timebomb
, 139–54; Deborah Wallace and Rodrick Wallace, “The Recent Tuberculosis Epidemic in New York City: Warning from the De-Developing World,” in
The Return of the White Plague: Global Poverty and the “New” Tuberculosis
, ed. M. Gandy and A. Zumla, 125–46

(London: Verso, 2003).

24. Reichman and Tanne,
Timebomb
, 142–53.

25. Reichman and Tanne,
Timebomb
, 149.

26. Coker,
From Chaos to Coercion
, 83–119, 141–89.

27. Judith Walzer Leavitt,
Typhoid Mary: Captive to the Public’s Health
(Boston: Beacon Press, 1996), esp. 39–125.

28. Reichman and Tanne,
Timebomb
, 63–125.

29. Information available on USAID website, at www.usaid.gov/our_work/global_

health/id/tuberculosis/countries/eande/russia_profile.html. See also Vivien Stern, “
The House of the Dead
Revisited: Prisons, Tuberculosis and Public Health in the Former Soviet Bloc,” in
The Return of the White Plague: Global Poverty and the “New” Tuberculosis
, ed.

M. Gandy and A. Zumla, 178–91 (London: Verso, 2003).

30. Coker,
From Chaos to Coercion
, 6–11.

31. Reichman and Tanne,
Timebomb
, 176–77.

32. Reichman and Tanne,
Timebomb
, 181–86. Trials are currently under way for one such vaccine developed by the Aeras Global TB Vaccine Foundation in Rockville, Maryland.

33. Léopold Blanc and Mukund Uplekar, “The Present Global Burden of Tuberculosis,” in
The Return of the White Plague: Global Poverty and the “New” Tuberculosis
, ed. M.

Gandy and A. Zumla, 95–111 (London: Verso, 2003), 106–7.

Notes to Pages 101–105 y 203

1. Robert D. Morris,
The Blue Death: Disease, Disaster, and the Water We Drink
(New York: HarperCollins, 2007), 120–30; Christopher Hamlin,
Cholera: The Biography
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), 19–23.

2. Jo N. Hays,
Epidemics and Pandemics: Their Impacts on Human History
(Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC–CLIO, 2005), 230.

3. Hays,
Epidemics and Pandemics
, 214; R. J. Morris,
Cholera 1832: The Social Response to an Epidemic
(New York: Holmes and Meier, 1976), 15–16; Michael Durey,
The Return of the Plague: British Society and the Cholera, 1831–2
(Dublin: Gill and Macmillan, 1979), 216–18; Morris,
The Blue Death
, 80–81.

4. Hays,
Epidemics and Pandemics
, 193–200, 211–38, 267–79, 303–14, 321–29, 345–54, 369–75, 421–26.

5. Morris,
The Blue Death
, 257–92.

6. I am indebted to Jo N. Hays and his historiographical essay, “Nineteenth-Century Cholera in Twentieth-Century Historical Writing,” page 2, which he presented at my panel on “Plagues in World History” at the 2008 annual meeting of the American Historical Association, Washington, D.C., January 3–6. But see also Roderick E. McGrew, Russia and the Cholera, 1823–1832
(Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1965), 7–9; Morris,
Cholera 1832
, 170–84; Durey,
Return of the Plague
, 107–20; François Delaporte, Disease and Civilization: The Cholera in Paris, 1832
(Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1986), 139–95; Catherine J. Kudlick,
Cholera in Post-Revolutionary Paris: A Cultural History
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996), 75–81.

7. Delaporte,
Disease and Civilization
, 47–72; Kudlick,
Cholera in Post-Revolutionary Paris
, 31–64, 176–219; William Coleman,
Death Is a Social Disease: Public Health and Political Economy in Early Industrial France
(Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1982), 171–80; Richard J. Evans, “Epidemics and Revolutions: Cholera in Nineteenth-Century Europe,” in
Epidemics and Ideas: Essays on the Historical Perception of Pestilence
, ed. T. Ranger and P. Slack, 149–73 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).

8. McGrew,
Russia and the Cholera
, esp. 98–158.

9. Durey,
Return of the Plague
, 155–84.

10. Richard J. Evans,
Death in Hamburg: Society and Politics in the Cholera Years, 1830–1910
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987), esp. 470–568. Not even the “slum clearances” in Hamburg five years later, when allegedly unsanitary housing near the river was razed and the working-class residents forced to relocate, apparently elicited significant protests from this politically “dangerous” sector.

11. Frank M. Snowden,
Naples in the Time of Cholera, 1884–1911
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 149–54, 285–59.

12. David Arnold,
Colonizing the Body: State Medicine and Epidemic Disease in Nineteenth-Century India
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), 168–99; David Arnold, “Cholera and Colonialism in British India,”
Past and Present
113 (1986): 128–45; Hays,
Epidemics and Pandemics
, 267.

204 y Notes to Pages 106–113

13. Arnold,
Colonizing the Body
, 179–89; Hays,
Epidemics and Pandemics
, 197–98.

14. Sheldon Watts,
Epidemics and History: Disease, Power and Imperialism
(New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1997), 200–212. Watts argues further that commercial interests promoted engineering projects, such as railways and canals, that actually made cholera worse in India.

15. Arnold,
Colonizing the Body
, 171–78.

16. Hays,
Epidemics and Pandemics
, 345, 349–50; Reynaldo C. Ileto, “Cholera and the Origins of the American Sanitary Order in the Philippines,” in
Imperial Medicine and Indigenous Societies
, ed. D. Arnold, 125–48 (Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1988); Rodney Sullivan, “Cholera and Colonialism in the Philippines, 1899–1903,” in
Disease, Medicine, and Empire: Perspectives on Western Medicine and the Experience of European Expansion
, ed. R. M. MacLeod and M. J. Lewis, 284–300 (London: Routledge, 1988).

17. Nancy Elizabeth Gallagher,
Medicine and Power in Tunisia, 1780–1900
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 40–64.

18. Morris,
Cholera 1832
, 206–10; Morris,
The Blue Death
, 75–95.

19. Alfred Jay Bollet,
Plagues and Poxes: The Impact of Human History on Epidemic Disease
, 2nd ed. (New York: Demos, 2004), 40, 62.

20. Charles E. Rosenberg,
The Cholera Years
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962), 192–212; Durey,
Return of the Plague
, 77–100.

21. Morris,
Cholera 1832
, 210; Morris,
The Blue Death
, 96–108.

22. Evans,
Death in Hamburg
, 490–507.

23. Hays,
Epidemics and Pandemics
, 426.

24. Morris,
Cholera 1832
, 166–70.

25. Hays,
Epidemics and Pandemics
, 424–26.

26. Norman Howard-Jones, “Cholera Therapy in the Nineteenth Century,”
Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences
27 (1972): 373–95.

1. Dorothy A. Pettit and Janice Bailie,
A Cruel Wind: Pandemic Flu in America, 1918–1920
(Murfreesboro, Tenn.: Timberland Books, 2008), 2–18. For a far more detailed and scientific discussion of influenza biology, readers will want to consult Edwin D. Kilbourne,
Influenza
(New York: Plenum Medical Book, 1987).

2. Paul Tambyah and Ping-Chung Leung, eds.,
Bird Flu: A Rising Pandemic in Asia and Beyond?
(Singapore: World Scientific Publishing, 2006), 7–8, 60–62.

3. Pettit and Bailie,
A Cruel Wind
, 4.

4. This is indeed the basis for an alternative hypothesis as to how influenza epidemics arise and spread: see R. Edgar Hope-Simpson,
The Transmission of Epidemic Influenza (New York: Plenum, 1992).

5. See, for example, Tom Quinn’s discussion of the pre-eighteenth-century occurrence of the disease in
Flu: A Social History of Influenza
(London: New Holland Publishers, 2008), 39–57.

Notes to Pages 113–119 y 205

6. Howard Phillips and David Killingray, eds.,
The Spanish Influenza Pandemic of 1918–19: New Perspectives
(New York: Routledge, 2003), 8–9, 40–41; Jo N. Hays,
Epidemics and Pandemics: Their Impacts on Human History
(Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC–CLIO, 2005), 386–87.

7. Phillips and Killingray,
Spanish Influenza Pandemic
, 5–7; Hays,
Epidemics and Pandemics
, 385–88.

8. Kilbourne,
Influenza
, 268–70.

9. Alfred W. Crosby,
America’s Forgotten Pandemic: The Influenza of 1918
, 2nd ed.

(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), esp. 311–28.

10. E. Fuller Torrey and Robert H. Yolken,
Beasts of the Earth: Animals, Humans, and Disease
(New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2005), 114–16.

11. Quinn,
Flu
, 39–57; W. I. B. Beveridge,
Influenza: The Last Great Plague: An Unfinished Story of Discovery
(New York: Prodist, 1977), 24–26.

12. Ken Albala,
Eating Right in the Renaissance
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002), 122–23.