She Wolves (36 page)

Until very recently, history has almost exclusively been written by men with their own male point of view. Generally the women described here were not passive or retiring and, as a result of this, they were seen as a threat to the established male order and targets ripe for attack. Women were simply not expected to have political power and, as a result, many queens found an inherent contradiction in their role which was, after all, a political and public one. Some queens managed to negotiate this successfully and others less so, however for women under the constant scrutiny of chroniclers it was easy to be considered a failure. The role of queen was developing throughout the medieval period and the women described here were often the most proactive agents in this process. Their circumstances and actions pushed them into the public eye and this was considered unacceptable to their more conservative contemporaries. To many people in the medieval period, the role of queen was really only that of king’s wife and for women who sought to be queens there was often a tightrope to walk to secure the preservation of their reputations. The women described here failed to walk the tightrope for one reason or another and as a result they were attacked. To be a She-Wolf is to be remembered as notorious, whatever the facts of the individual queen’s life and, once the chronicles had been written, the true facts of the lives were often forgotten.

Chapter 2: Pre-Conquest Queens

1  Asser, chapter 13 (in Keynes and Lapidge 2004:72)

2  Stafford 1997:56

3  Stafford 1983:2

4  Charter LVI (in Pierquin 1912:417)

5  Asser, chapter 2 (in Keynes and Lapidge 2004:68)

6  Asser, chapter 23 (in Keynes and Lapidge 2004:75)

7  William of Malmesbury (in Preest 2002:124)

8  William of Malmesbury (in Preest 2002:124)

9  William of Malmesbury (in Preest 2002:127)

10  Asser, chapter 2 (in Keynes and Lapidge 2004:68)

11  Florence of Worcester (in Stevenson 1987:214 and 234)

12  Encomium Emmae Reginae (in Campbell 1998:33)

13  Regularis Concordia (in Symons 1953:2)

14  Aelfric’s Life of St Aethelwold (in Whitelock 1979:905)

15  Life of King Edward who Rests at Westminster (in Barlow 1962:41)

16  Life of King Edward who Rests at Westminster (in Barlow 1962:41)

17  Cnut practised polygamy, maintaining both Emma of Normandy and Aelfgifu of Northampton as his queens

Chapter 3: Incestuous Queens

1  Nelson 1992:136

2  William of Malmesbury (in Stephenson 1989:88)

3  Simeon of Durham (in Stevenson 1987:53)

4  Florence of Worcester (in Stevenson 1853:209)

5  Asser chapter 13 (in Keynes and Lapidge 2004:72)

6  Annals of St Bertin’s (in Whitelock 1979:343)

7  Annals of St Bertin’s (in Whitelock 1979:343)

8  Kirby 2000:165

9  Stafford 1990a:146

10  William of Malmesbury (in Stephenson 1989:94)

11  Asser chapter 12 (in Keynes and Lapidge 2004:70)

12  William of Malmesbury (in Stephenson 1989:95)

13  Asser chapter 13 (in Keynes and Lapidge 2004:71)

14  Anglo-Saxon Chronicle A for 855 (in Swanton 2000:66)

15  William of Malmesbury (in Stephenson 1989:95)

16  Bede II.5 (in Shirley-Price 1990:112)

17  Asser chapter 17 (in Keynes and Lapidge 2004:73)

18  William of Malmesbury (in Stephenson 1989:97)

19  Asser chapter 12 (in Keynes and Lapidge 2004:70)

20  Kirby 2000:167

21  A grant by Aethelbald of land at Teffont (Charter 3 in Kelly 1996:16-17)

22  Simeon of Durham (in Stevenson 1987:54)

23  Nelson 1992:203

24  Stafford 1998:87

25  Nelson 1992:203

26  Chronicle of Aethelweard (in Campbell 1962:55)

27  Life of St Dunstan (in Whitelock 1979:901)

28  Life of St Dunstan (in Whitelock 1979:90)

29  Stafford 1990b:61

30  Stafford 1990b:61

31  William of Malmesbury (in Preest 2002:275)

32  William of Malmesbury (in Stephenson 1989:128)

33  Stafford 1989:48

34  Yorke 1997:77

35  S1292 (in Sawyer 1968:373)

36  Yorke 1997:78

37  Florence of Worcester (in Stevenson 1853:944) and Simeon of Durham (in Stevenson 1987:91) for example

38  Anglo-Saxon Chronicle D for 958 (in Swanton 2000:113)

39  Simeon of Durham (in Stevenson 1987:91)

40  William of Malmesbury (in Preest 2002:17)

41  William of Malmesbury (in Stephenson 1989:129)

Chapter 4: Murder & Adultery in the Anglo-Saxon Court

1  Simeon of Durham for 802 (in Stevenson 1987:50)

2  Simeon of Durham for 802 (in Stevenson 1987:50)

3  Anglo-Saxon Chronicle A for 787 (actually 789) (in Swanton 2000:54)

4  Anglo-Saxon Chronicle A for 836 (actually 839) (in Swanton 2000:62)

5  Asser chapter 13 (in Keynes and Lapidge 2004:72)

6  Asser chapter 15 (in Keynes and Lapidge 2004:72)

7  Asser chapter 15 (in Keynes and Lapidge 2004:72)

8  Asser chapter 15 (in Keynes and Lapidge 2004:72)

9  Asser chapter 13 (in Keynes and Lapidge 2004:71)

10  Stafford 2001:259

11  Anglo-Saxon Chronicle E for 1043 (actually 1045) (in Swanton 2000:165)

12  William of Malmesbury (in Stephenson 1989:185-6)

13  William of Malmesbury (in Stephenson 1989:186)

14  Florence of Worcester (in Douglas and Greenaway 1981:221)

15  Florence of Worcester (in Douglas and Greenaway 1981:221)

16  Life of King Edward who Rests at Westminster (in Barlow 1962:23)

17  Life of King Edward who Rests at Westminster (in Barlow 1962:31)

18  Simeon of Durham (in Stevenson 1987:130)

19  Stafford 2001:271

20  William of Malmesbury (in Stephenson 1989:191)

21  Life of King Edward who Rests at Westminster (in Barlow 1962:54)

22  Anglo-Saxon Chronicle E for 1075 (in Swanton 2000:212)

23  Gaimar line 3601 (in Hardy and Martin 1888, discussed in Wright 1939:148)

24  William of Malmesbury (in Stephenson 1989:139)

25  Gaimar line 3731 (in Hardy and Martin 1888, discussed in Wright 1939)

26  William of Malmesbury (in Stephenson 1989:140)

27  William of Malmesbury (in Stephenson 1989:140)

28  William of Malmesbury (in Stephenson 1989:140)

29  Historia Eliensis, quoted and translated in Wright 1939:158-9

30  Historia Eliensis, quoted and translated in Wright 1939:159

31  Historia Eliensis, quoted and translated in Wright 1939:160

32  William of Malmesbury (in Stephenson 1989:141)

33  In the New Minster Charter of 966, Edmund witness above Edward and he is described as the king’s legitimate son, as opposed to Edward, who is simply the king’s son (in Miller 2001:103)

34  Anglo-Saxon Chronicle E for 970 (in Swanton 2000:119)

35  Anglo-Saxon Chronicle D for 975 (in Swanton 2000:121)

36  Life of St Oswald by Byrhtferth of Ramsey (in Whitelock 1979:912)

37  Life of St Oswald by Byrhtferth of Ramsey (in Whitelock 1979:914)

38  Life of St Oswald by Byrhtferth of Ramsey (in Whitelock 1979:914)

39  William of Malmesbury (in Stephenson 1989:143)

40  William of Malmesbury (in Stephenson 1989:145)

41  Florence of Worcester (in Stephenson 1853:87)

42  William of Malmesbury (in Stephenson 1989:140)

43  William of Malmesbury (in Stephenson 1989:144)

Chapter 5: Female Power Struggles

1  Letter of Pope John XV to all the faithful, concerning the reconciliation of Ethelred, King of England, and Richard, Duke of Normandy (in Whitelock 1979:894-5)

2  Anglo-Saxon Chronicle E for 1000 (in Swanton 2000:133)

3  Anglo-Saxon Chronicle E for 1002 (in Swanton 2000:134)

4  Anglo-Saxon Chronicle F for 1003 (in Swanton 2000:134)

5  Anglo-Saxon Chronicle E for 1013 (in Swanton 2000:143)

6  Anglo-Saxon Chronicle E for 1013 (in Swanton 2000:143)

7  Anglo-Saxon Chronicle E for 1013 (in Swanton 2000:144)

8  Anglo-Saxon Chronicle E for 1013 (in Swanton 2000:144)

9  Anglo-Saxon Chronicle E for 1014 (in Swanton 2000:144)

10  William of Malmesbury (in Stephenson 1989:164)

11  William of Malmesbury (in Stephenson 1989:164)

12  Anglo-Saxon Chronicle E for 1016 (in Swanton 2000:146)

13  Life of King Edward who Rests at Westminster (in Barlow 1962:8)

14  Anglo-Saxon Chronicle E for 1016 (in Swanton 2000:148)

15  Anglo-Saxon Chronicle E for 1016 (in Swanton 2000:153)

16  Encomium Emmae Reginae Book II chapter 16 (in Campbell 1998:33)

17  Encomium Emmae Reginae Book II chapter 16 (in Campbell 1998:33)

18  Anglo-Saxon Chronicle E for 1017 (in Swanton 2000:155)

19  Encomium Emmae Reginae Book II chapter 16 (in Campbell 1998:35)

20  Campbell 1971:69

21  Campbell 1971:69

22  Stafford 1997:226

23  Stafford 1997:229

24  For example, she is described as a queen in a grant by Cnut of lands at Landrake and Tinnel in 1018 (in Whitelock 1979:597-599) and as Cnut’s consort in a charter recording the restoration of lands to the New Minster at Winchester in 1019 (in Whitelock 1979:599-601)

25  Stafford 1997:233

26  Old English Letter of Wulfstan, Archbishop of York, informing King Cnut and Queen Aelfgifu that he has consecrated the Archbishop of Canterbury (in Whitelock 1979:601-2)

27  Strachan 2004:106

28  Stenton 1971:405

29  Campbell 1971:74

30  Campbell 1971:74

31  St Olaf’s Saga (in Hollander 2002:525)

32  St Olaf’s Saga (in Hollander 2002:525)

33  Campbell 1971:74

34  St Olaf’s Saga (in Hollander 2002:528)

35  St Olaf’s Saga (in Hollander 2002:528-30)

36  Campbell 1971:75

37  Anglo-Saxon Chronicle E for 1036 (actually 1035) (in Swanton 2000:159)

38  Encomium Emmae Reginae, Book III chapter 1 (in Campbell 1998:41)

39  Anglo-Saxon Chronicle E for 1036 (actually 1035) (in Swanton 2000:159)

40  Florence of Worcester (in Whitelock 1979:315)

41  Florence of Worcester (in Whitelock 1979:315)

42  Encomium Emmae Reginae Book III chapter 1 (in Campbell 1998:41)

43  Stafford 1997:239

44  Encomium Emmae Reginae Book III chapter 2 (in Campbell 1998:41)

45  Encomium Emmae Reginae Book III chapter 3 (in Campbell 1998:43)

46  Simeon of Durham (in Stevenson 1987:115)

47  Anglo-Saxon Chronicle A for 1037 (in Swanton 2000:160)

48  Encomium Emmae Reginae Book III chapter 8 (in Campbell 1998:49)

49  Campbell 1971:78

50  Encomium Emmae Reginae Book III chapter 14 (in Campbell 1998:53)

51  Anglo-Saxon Chronicle C for 1043 (in Swanton 2000:162)

52  Anglo-Saxon Chronicle D for 1052 (Swanton 2000:176)

Chapter 6: Post-Conquest Queens

1  Matilda was the only child of Count Eustace of Boulogne and, on her marriage, her father abdicated in favour of Stephen (in the Gesta Stephani, chapter 2 in Potter 1976:5). Eleanor of Aquitaine was the eldest of the two daughters of William X, Duke of Aquitaine.

2  Mitchell 1986:30

3  Patterson 1973:5

4  Warren 1997:66

5  Orderic Vitalis (in Chibnall 1968:211)

6  Orderic Vitalis (in Chibnall 1968:223)

7  Honeycutt 2003:91

8  William of Malmesbury (in Mynors 1998:757)

9  Honeycutt 2002:122

10  For example, Matilda of Boulogne led an army to besiege Dover in the name of her husband (Tanner 2002:140)

Chapter 7: Arrogance & Pride

1  Chibnall 1991:9

2  Henry of Huntingdon, iii.27 (in Greenaway 2002:52)

3  Anglo-Saxon Chronicle E for 1110 (in Swanton 2000:242)

4  Henry of Huntingdon, iii.27 (in Greenaway 2002:52)

5  John of Worcester (in McGurk 1998:135)

6  Pain 1978:15

7  Henry of Huntingdon, iii.36 (in Greenaway 2002:58)

8  Pain 1978:17

9  William of Malmesbury (in King and Potter 1998:7)

10  William of Malmesbury (in King and Potter 1998:7)

11  William of Malmesbury (in King and Potter 1998:7)

12  William of Malmesbury (in King and Potter 1998:19)

13  Pain 1978:26

14  Pain 1978:26

15  Chibnall 1991:60

16  Chibnall 1994:277

17  Henry of Huntingdon, iii.41 (in Greenway 2002:63)

18  Pain 1978:28

19  Chibnall 1991:70

20  Henry of Huntingdon, iii.43 (in Greenway 2002:63)

21  Henry of Huntingdon, iii.43 (in Greenway 2002:64)

22  William of Malmesbury (in King and Potter 1998:25)

23  William of Malmesbury (in King and Potter 1998:27)

24  Gesta Stephani, chapter 2 (in Potter 1976:5)

25  Chibnall 1991:198

26  John of Worcester (in McGurk 1998:253)

27  John of Worcester (in McGurk 1998:269)

28  John of Worcester (in McGurk 1998:269)

29  John of Worcester (in McGurk 1998:271)

30  John of Worcester (in McGurk 1998:293)

31  William of Malmesbury (in King and Potter 1998:87)

32  Gesta Stephani, chapter 58 (in Potter 1976:119)

33  Gesta Stephani, chapter 58 (in Potter 1976:121)

34  Gesta Stephani, chapter 61 (in Potter 1976:123)

35  Gesta Stephani, chapter 61 (in Potter 1976:123)

36  Gesta Stephani (in Potter 1976:121)

37  Gesta Stephani (in Potter 1976:121)

38  Gesta Stephani (in Potter 1976:121)

39  Gesta Stephani, chapter 60 (in Potter 1976:123)

40  Gesta Stephani, chapter 60 (in Potter 1976:123)

41  Gesta Stephani (in Potter 1976:125)

42  Gesta Stephani (in Potter 1976:127)

43  Gesta Stephani (in Potter 1976:125)

44  Gesta Stephani (in Potter 1976:127)

45  Henry of Huntingdon (in Greenway 2002:81)

46  Gesta Stephani (in Potter 1976:129)

47  Gesta Stephani (in Potter 1976:133)

48  Anglo-Saxon Chronicle E for 1141 (in Swanton 2000:266)

49  John of Worcester (in McGurk 1998:305)