Authors: Michelle Alexander
The New Jim Crow (49 page)
57
Manza and Uggen,
Locked Out
, 154.
Manza and Uggen,
Locked Out
, 154.
58
Ibid., 152.
Ibid., 152.
59
Human Rights Watch,
No Second Chance
, 79.
Human Rights Watch,
No Second Chance
, 79.
60
Willie Thompson, interviewed by Guylando A. M. Moreno, Mar. 2008, Cincinnati, OH.
Willie Thompson, interviewed by Guylando A. M. Moreno, Mar. 2008, Cincinnati, OH.
61
Abramsky,
Conned
, 140.
Abramsky,
Conned
, 140.
62
Donald Braman,
Doing Time on the Outside: Incarceration and Family Life in Urban America
(Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2004), 219.
Donald Braman,
Doing Time on the Outside: Incarceration and Family Life in Urban America
(Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2004), 219.
63
Ibid., 3, citing data from D.C. Department of Corrections (2000).
Ibid., 3, citing data from D.C. Department of Corrections (2000).
64
See Todd Clear,
Imprisoning Communities: How Mass Incarceration Makes Disadvantaged Neighborhoods Worse
(New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 121-48.
See Todd Clear,
Imprisoning Communities: How Mass Incarceration Makes Disadvantaged Neighborhoods Worse
(New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 121-48.
65
See, e.g., Steve Liss,
No Place for Children: Voices from Juvenile Detention
(Austin: University of Texas Press, 2005). Stories include youth describing the verbal abuse they receive from their parents.
See, e.g., Steve Liss,
No Place for Children: Voices from Juvenile Detention
(Austin: University of Texas Press, 2005). Stories include youth describing the verbal abuse they receive from their parents.
66
Braman,
Doing Time on the Outside
, 171.
Braman,
Doing Time on the Outside
, 171.
67
Ibid., 219, fn. 2.
Ibid., 219, fn. 2.
68
See Deborah A. Prentice and Dale T. Miller, “Pluralistic Ignorance and Alcohol Use on Campus: Some Consequences of Misperceiving the Social Norm,”
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
64, no. 2 (1993): 243-56.
See Deborah A. Prentice and Dale T. Miller, “Pluralistic Ignorance and Alcohol Use on Campus: Some Consequences of Misperceiving the Social Norm,”
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
64, no. 2 (1993): 243-56.
69
Braman,
Doing Time on the Outside
, 216.
Braman,
Doing Time on the Outside
, 216.
70
Cathy Cohen,
The Boundaries of Blackness: AIDS and the Breakdown of Black Politics
(University of Chicago Press, 1999), 287.
Cathy Cohen,
The Boundaries of Blackness: AIDS and the Breakdown of Black Politics
(University of Chicago Press, 1999), 287.
71
Braman,
Doing Time on the Outside
, 174.
Braman,
Doing Time on the Outside
, 174.
72
Ibid., 184.
Ibid., 184.
73
Ibid., 185.
Ibid., 185.
74
Ibid., 186.
Ibid., 186.
75
Ibid.
Ibid.
76
Gerald Sider, “Against Experience: The Struggles for History, Tradition, and Hope Among a Native American People,” in
Between History and Histories
, ed. Gerald Sider and Gavin Smith (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1997), 74-75.
Gerald Sider, “Against Experience: The Struggles for History, Tradition, and Hope Among a Native American People,” in
Between History and Histories
, ed. Gerald Sider and Gavin Smith (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1997), 74-75.
77
Braman,
Doing Time on the Outside
, 220.
Braman,
Doing Time on the Outside
, 220.
78
Ibid.
Ibid.
79
James Thomas Sears,
Growing Up Gay in the South: Race, Gender, and Journeys of the Spirit
(New York: Routledge, 1991), 257.
James Thomas Sears,
Growing Up Gay in the South: Race, Gender, and Journeys of the Spirit
(New York: Routledge, 1991), 257.
80
Victor M. Rios, “The Hyper-Criminalization of Black and Latino Male Youth in the Era of Mass Incarceration,” unpublished manuscript on file with author.
Victor M. Rios, “The Hyper-Criminalization of Black and Latino Male Youth in the Era of Mass Incarceration,” unpublished manuscript on file with author.
81
Robert Toll,
Blacking Up: The Minstrel Show in Nineteenth- Century America
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1974), 227.
Robert Toll,
Blacking Up: The Minstrel Show in Nineteenth- Century America
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1974), 227.
82
Ibid., 258.
Ibid., 258.
83
Mel Watkins,
On the Real Side: Laughing, Lying and Signifying: The Underground Tradition of African-American Humor That Transformed American Culture, from Slavery to Richard Pryor
(New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994), 124-29.
Mel Watkins,
On the Real Side: Laughing, Lying and Signifying: The Underground Tradition of African-American Humor That Transformed American Culture, from Slavery to Richard Pryor
(New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994), 124-29.
84
Ibid.; see also Toll,
Blacking Up
, 226.
Chapter 5: The New Jim CrowIbid.; see also Toll,
Blacking Up
, 226.
1
Michael Eric Dyson, “Obama’s Rebuke of Absentee Black Fathers,”
Time
, June 19, 2008.
Michael Eric Dyson, “Obama’s Rebuke of Absentee Black Fathers,”
Time
, June 19, 2008.
2
Sam Roberts, “51% of Women Now Living with a Spouse,
New York Times
, Jan. 16, 2007.
Sam Roberts, “51% of Women Now Living with a Spouse,
New York Times
, Jan. 16, 2007.
3
See Jonathan Tilove, “Where Have All the Men Gone? Black Gender Gap Is Widening,”
Seattle Times
, May 5, 2005; and Jonathan Tilove, “Where Have All the Black Men Gone?”
Star-Ledger
(Newark), May 8, 2005.
See Jonathan Tilove, “Where Have All the Men Gone? Black Gender Gap Is Widening,”
Seattle Times
, May 5, 2005; and Jonathan Tilove, “Where Have All the Black Men Gone?”
Star-Ledger
(Newark), May 8, 2005.
4
Ibid.
Ibid.
5
Cf., Salim Muwakkil, “Black Men: Missing,”
In These Times
, June 16, 2005.
Cf., Salim Muwakkil, “Black Men: Missing,”
In These Times
, June 16, 2005.
6
G. Garvin, “Where Have the Black Men Gone?,”
Ebony
, Dec. 2006.
G. Garvin, “Where Have the Black Men Gone?,”
Ebony
, Dec. 2006.
7
One in eleven black adults was under correctional supervision at year end 2007, or approximately 3.5 million people. See Pew Center on the States,
One in 31: The Long Reach of American Corrections
(Washington, DC: Pew Charitable Trusts, Mar. 2009). According to the 1850 Census, approximately 3.2 million black people were slaves.
One in eleven black adults was under correctional supervision at year end 2007, or approximately 3.5 million people. See Pew Center on the States,
One in 31: The Long Reach of American Corrections
(Washington, DC: Pew Charitable Trusts, Mar. 2009). According to the 1850 Census, approximately 3.2 million black people were slaves.
8
See Andrew J. Cherlin,
Marriage, Divorce, Remarriage
, rev. ed., (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992), 110.
See Andrew J. Cherlin,
Marriage, Divorce, Remarriage
, rev. ed., (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992), 110.
9
See Glenn C. Loury,
Race, Incarceration, and American Values
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2008), commentary by Pam Karlan.
See Glenn C. Loury,
Race, Incarceration, and American Values
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2008), commentary by Pam Karlan.
10
Stanley Cohen,
States of Denial: Knowing About Atrocities and Suffering
(Cambridge, UK: Polity, 2001), 4-5.
Stanley Cohen,
States of Denial: Knowing About Atrocities and Suffering
(Cambridge, UK: Polity, 2001), 4-5.
11
Iris Marilyn Young,
Inclusion and Democracy
(New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 92-99.
Iris Marilyn Young,
Inclusion and Democracy
(New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 92-99.
12
Marilyn Frye, “Oppression,” in
The Politics of Reality
(Trumansburg, NY: Crossing Press, 1983).
Marilyn Frye, “Oppression,” in
The Politics of Reality
(Trumansburg, NY: Crossing Press, 1983).
13
See Marc Mauer and Meda Chesney-Lind, eds.,
Invisible Punishment: The Collateral Consequences of Mass Imprisonment
(New York: The New Press, 2002); and Jeremy Travis,
But They All Come Back: Facing the Challenges of Prisoner Reentry
(Washington, DC: Urban Institute Press, 2005).
See Marc Mauer and Meda Chesney-Lind, eds.,
Invisible Punishment: The Collateral Consequences of Mass Imprisonment
(New York: The New Press, 2002); and Jeremy Travis,
But They All Come Back: Facing the Challenges of Prisoner Reentry
(Washington, DC: Urban Institute Press, 2005).
14
Negley K. Teeters and John D. Shearer,
The Prison at Philadelphia, Cherry Hill: The Separate System of Prison Discipline, 1829-1913
(New York: Columbia University Press, 1957), 84.
Negley K. Teeters and John D. Shearer,
The Prison at Philadelphia, Cherry Hill: The Separate System of Prison Discipline, 1829-1913
(New York: Columbia University Press, 1957), 84.
15
See David Musto,
The American Disease: Origins of Narcotics Control
(New York: Oxford University Press, 3rd ed., 1999), 4, 7, 43-44, 219-20, describing the role of racial bias in earlier drug wars; and Doris Marie Provine,
Unequal Under Law: Race in the War on Drugs
(University of Chicago Press, 2007), 37-90, describing racial bias in alcohol prohibition, as well as other drug wars.
See David Musto,
The American Disease: Origins of Narcotics Control
(New York: Oxford University Press, 3rd ed., 1999), 4, 7, 43-44, 219-20, describing the role of racial bias in earlier drug wars; and Doris Marie Provine,
Unequal Under Law: Race in the War on Drugs
(University of Chicago Press, 2007), 37-90, describing racial bias in alcohol prohibition, as well as other drug wars.
16
Mary Pattillo, David F. Weiman, and Bruce Western,
Imprisoning America: The Social Effect of Mass Incarceration
(New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2004), 2.
Mary Pattillo, David F. Weiman, and Bruce Western,
Imprisoning America: The Social Effect of Mass Incarceration
(New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2004), 2.
17
Paul Street,
The Vicious Circle: Race, Prison, Jobs, and Community in Chicago, Illinois, and the Nation
(Chicago Urban League, Department of Research and Planning, 2002).
Paul Street,
The Vicious Circle: Race, Prison, Jobs, and Community in Chicago, Illinois, and the Nation
(Chicago Urban League, Department of Research and Planning, 2002).
18
Street,
Vicious Circle
, 3.
Street,
Vicious Circle
, 3.
19
Alden Loury, “Black Offenders Face Stiffest Drug Sentences,”
Chicago Reporter
, Sept. 12, 2007.
Alden Loury, “Black Offenders Face Stiffest Drug Sentences,”
Chicago Reporter
, Sept. 12, 2007.
20
Ibid.
Ibid.
21
Street,
Vicious Circle
,
15.
Street,
Vicious Circle
,
15.
22
Donald G. Lubin et al.,
Chicago Metropolis 2020: 2006 Crime and Justice Index
, (Washington, DC: Pew Center on the States, 2006), 5,
www.pewcenteronthestates.org/report_detail.aspx?id=33022
.
Donald G. Lubin et al.,
Chicago Metropolis 2020: 2006 Crime and Justice Index
, (Washington, DC: Pew Center on the States, 2006), 5,
www.pewcenteronthestates.org/report_detail.aspx?id=33022
.
23
Ibid., 37.
Ibid., 37.
24
Ibid., 35.
Ibid., 35.
25
Ibid., 3; see also Bruce Western,
Punishment and Inequality in America
(New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2006), 12.
Ibid., 3; see also Bruce Western,
Punishment and Inequality in America
(New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2006), 12.
26
Street,
Vicious Circle
, 3.
Street,
Vicious Circle
, 3.
27
Ibid.
Ibid.
28
Ibid.
Ibid.
29
See chapter 1, page 61, which describes the view that President Ronald Reagan’s appeal derived primarily from the “emotional distress of those who fear or resent the Negro, and who expect Reagan somehow to keep him ‘in his place’ or at least echo their own anger and frustration.”
See chapter 1, page 61, which describes the view that President Ronald Reagan’s appeal derived primarily from the “emotional distress of those who fear or resent the Negro, and who expect Reagan somehow to keep him ‘in his place’ or at least echo their own anger and frustration.”
30
For an excellent discussion of the history of felon disenfranchisement laws, as well as their modern day impact, see Jeff Manza and Christopher Uggen,
Locked Out: Felon Disenfranchisement and American Democracy
(New York: Oxford University Press, 2006).
For an excellent discussion of the history of felon disenfranchisement laws, as well as their modern day impact, see Jeff Manza and Christopher Uggen,
Locked Out: Felon Disenfranchisement and American Democracy
(New York: Oxford University Press, 2006).
31
Cotton v. Fordice
, 157 F.3d 388, 391 (5th Cir. 1998); see also Martine J. Price, Note and Comment: Addressing Ex-Felon Disenfranchisement: Legislation v. Litigation,
Brooklyn Journal of Law and Policy
11 (2002): 369, 382-83.
Cotton v. Fordice
, 157 F.3d 388, 391 (5th Cir. 1998); see also Martine J. Price, Note and Comment: Addressing Ex-Felon Disenfranchisement: Legislation v. Litigation,
Brooklyn Journal of Law and Policy
11 (2002): 369, 382-83.
32
See Jamie Fellner and Marc Mauer,
Losing the Vote: The Impact of Felony Disenfranchisement Laws in the United States
(Washington, DC: Sentencing Project, 1998).
See Jamie Fellner and Marc Mauer,
Losing the Vote: The Impact of Felony Disenfranchisement Laws in the United States
(Washington, DC: Sentencing Project, 1998).
33
Loury,
Race, Incarceration, and American Values
, 48
Loury,
Race, Incarceration, and American Values
, 48
34
See Eric Lotke and Peter Wagner, “Prisoners of the Census: Electoral and Financial Consequences of Counting Prisoners Where They Go, Not Where They Come From,”
Pace Law Review
24 (2004): 587, available at
www.prisonpolicy.org/pace.pdf
.
See Eric Lotke and Peter Wagner, “Prisoners of the Census: Electoral and Financial Consequences of Counting Prisoners Where They Go, Not Where They Come From,”
Pace Law Review
24 (2004): 587, available at
www.prisonpolicy.org/pace.pdf
.
35
See
Batson v. Kentucky
476 U.S. 79 (1986), discussed in chapter 3, page 146.
See
Batson v. Kentucky
476 U.S. 79 (1986), discussed in chapter 3, page 146.
36
See
Purkett v. Elm
, 514 U.S. 765 discussed in chapter 3, page 150.
See
Purkett v. Elm
, 514 U.S. 765 discussed in chapter 3, page 150.
37
Brian Kalt, “The Exclusion of Felons from Jury Service,”
American University Law Review
53 (2003): 65.
Brian Kalt, “The Exclusion of Felons from Jury Service,”
American University Law Review
53 (2003): 65.
38
See
Dred Scott v. Sandford
, 60 U.S. (How. 19) 393 (1857).
See
Dred Scott v. Sandford
, 60 U.S. (How. 19) 393 (1857).
39
Travis,
But They All Come Back
, 132.
Travis,
But They All Come Back
, 132.
40
Peter Wagner, “Prisoners of the Census”; for more information, see
www.prisonersofthecensus.org
.
Peter Wagner, “Prisoners of the Census”; for more information, see
www.prisonersofthecensus.org
.
41
Travis,
But They All Come Back
, 281, citing James Lynch and William Sabol,
Prisoner Reentry in Perspective
, Crime Policy Report, vol. 3 (Washington, DC: Urban Institute, 2001).
Travis,
But They All Come Back
, 281, citing James Lynch and William Sabol,
Prisoner Reentry in Perspective
, Crime Policy Report, vol. 3 (Washington, DC: Urban Institute, 2001).
42
Dina Rose, Todd Clear, and Judith Ryder,
Drugs, Incarcerations, and Neighborhood Life: The Impact of Reintegrating Offenders into the Community
(Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, 2002).
Dina Rose, Todd Clear, and Judith Ryder,
Drugs, Incarcerations, and Neighborhood Life: The Impact of Reintegrating Offenders into the Community
(Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, 2002).
43
Sudhir Alladi Venkatesh,
The Robert Taylor Homes Relocation Study
(New York: Center for Urban Research and Policy, Columbia University, 2002).
Sudhir Alladi Venkatesh,
The Robert Taylor Homes Relocation Study
(New York: Center for Urban Research and Policy, Columbia University, 2002).
44
Street,
Vicious Circle
, 16.
Street,
Vicious Circle
, 16.
45
Ibid., 17.
Ibid., 17.
46
Keynote address by Paula Wolff at Annual Luncheon for Appleseed Fund for Justice and Chicago Council of Lawyers, Oct. 7, 2008,
www.chicagometropolis2020.org/10_25.htm
.
Keynote address by Paula Wolff at Annual Luncheon for Appleseed Fund for Justice and Chicago Council of Lawyers, Oct. 7, 2008,
www.chicagometropolis2020.org/10_25.htm
.
47
Katherine Beckett and Theodore Sasson,
The Politics of Injustice: Crime and Punishment in America
(Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2004), 36, citing Mercer Sullivan,
Getting Paid: Youth Crime and Work in the Inner City
(New York: Cornell University Press, 1989).
Katherine Beckett and Theodore Sasson,
The Politics of Injustice: Crime and Punishment in America
(Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2004), 36, citing Mercer Sullivan,
Getting Paid: Youth Crime and Work in the Inner City
(New York: Cornell University Press, 1989).
48
Ibid.
Ibid.
49
Loïc Wacquant, “The New ‘Peculiar Institution’: On the Prison as Surrogate Ghetto,”
Theoretical Criminology
4, no. 3 (2000): 377-89.
Loïc Wacquant, “The New ‘Peculiar Institution’: On the Prison as Surrogate Ghetto,”
Theoretical Criminology
4, no. 3 (2000): 377-89.
50
See, e.g., Douglas Massey and Nancy Denton,
American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993).
See, e.g., Douglas Massey and Nancy Denton,
American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993).
51
Whites are far more likely than African Americans to complete college, and college graduates are more likely to have tried illicit drugs in their lifetime when compared to adults who have not completed high school. See U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration,
Findings from the 2000 National Household Survey on Drug Abuse
(Rockville, MD: 2001). Adults who have not completed high school are disproportionately African American.
Whites are far more likely than African Americans to complete college, and college graduates are more likely to have tried illicit drugs in their lifetime when compared to adults who have not completed high school. See U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration,
Findings from the 2000 National Household Survey on Drug Abuse
(Rockville, MD: 2001). Adults who have not completed high school are disproportionately African American.
52
Devah Pager,
Marked: Race, Crime, and Finding Work in an Era of Mass Incarceration
(University of Chicago Press, 2007), 90-91, 146-47.
Devah Pager,
Marked: Race, Crime, and Finding Work in an Era of Mass Incarceration
(University of Chicago Press, 2007), 90-91, 146-47.
53
John Edgar Wideman, “Doing Time, Marking Race,”
The Nation
, Oct. 30, 1995.
John Edgar Wideman, “Doing Time, Marking Race,”
The Nation
, Oct. 30, 1995.
54
See Julia Cass and Connie Curry,
America’s Cradle to Prison Pipeline
(New York: Children’s Defense Fund, 2007).
See Julia Cass and Connie Curry,
America’s Cradle to Prison Pipeline
(New York: Children’s Defense Fund, 2007).
55
James Forman Jr., “Children, Cops and Citizenship: Why Conservatives Should Oppose Racial Profiling,” in
Invisible Punishment
, ed. Mauer and Lind, 159.
James Forman Jr., “Children, Cops and Citizenship: Why Conservatives Should Oppose Racial Profiling,” in
Invisible Punishment
, ed. Mauer and Lind, 159.
56
Wideman, “Doing Time, Marking Race.”
Wideman, “Doing Time, Marking Race.”
57
See discussion of stigma in chapter 4.
See discussion of stigma in chapter 4.
58
See, e.g., Charles Ogletree and Austin Sarat, eds.,
From Lynch Mobs to the Killing State: Race and the Death Penalty in America
(New York: New York University Press, 2006); and Joy James,
The New Abolitionists: (Neo) Slave Narratives and Contemporary Prison Writings
(New York: State University of New York Press, 2005).
See, e.g., Charles Ogletree and Austin Sarat, eds.,
From Lynch Mobs to the Killing State: Race and the Death Penalty in America
(New York: New York University Press, 2006); and Joy James,
The New Abolitionists: (Neo) Slave Narratives and Contemporary Prison Writings
(New York: State University of New York Press, 2005).
59
See discussion of polling data in chapter 3.
See discussion of polling data in chapter 3.
60
Glenn C. Loury,
The Anatomy of Racial Inequality
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003), 82.
Glenn C. Loury,
The Anatomy of Racial Inequality
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003), 82.
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