5 Steps to a 5 AP Psychology, 2010-2011 Edition (9 page)

68. D—
(
Chapter 18
) Research by Burnstein and Vinokur has shown that when a group is evenly split on an issue, participants in a discussion partially convince each other that their own positions are valid, and participants moderate their positions—but this seems to be true only when group members are evenly divided and equally passionate about their views.

69. C—
(
Chapter 18
) Social psychology studies how the individual thinks about, influences, and relates to others and how others relate to him/her; sociology emphasizes the behavior and functions of groups.

70. E—
(
Chapter 18
) According to evolutionary psychologists, our behavior tends to help perpetuate our genes. We are, thus, more likely to help close kin who are likely to reproduce than others. If we need to choose others to help in life or death situations, we will tend to choose those who may benefit us or our kin.

Now that you’ve finished the diagnostic exam and scored your answers, you can figure out what your results mean. Did you answer all of the questions correctly for any chapters? Did you get all or most of the questions wrong for any chapters? Note which ones. In using this review book, you don’t need to spend as much time with a chapter with which you are very familiar as you do with a chapter that puzzles you. If you found yourself saying “Huh?” or felt “clueless,” spend more time learning the material in that chapter. If you are
not
reading this for the first time at the beginning of May, you have probably left yourself time to learn most information in this book.

If you have progressed beyond
Chapter 13
(Development) in your study of psychology and are ready to write a practice essay, try the one that follows in this book. If you haven’t studied development yet, and you really do want to write an essay, here’s a good alternative:

• Go to the College Board website at
http://www.collegeboard.com/student/

• Select “AP” under College Board Tests.

• Select “Psychology” under Subjects.

• Select “Sample Questions & Scoring.”

• You will arrive at a page that typically lets you select from 5 or 6 years of exams. Choose a year for which you see Scoring Guidelines available so that you’ll be able to score your response.

• Free-response question #1 for 2006 deals with research methods. This is a topic generally studied early in the course, so it might be an appropriate practice essay for you.

Score your essay using this eight-point rubric or guide. Award yourself a point for each segment you answered correctly.

This essay has eight points:

Point 1:
Define continuity or communicate its meaning.

Continuity is gradual or cumulative or quantitative change.

Point 2:
Define discontinuity or communicate its meaning.

Discontinuity is distinct or qualitative change, or stages.

Point 3:
Describe cognitive development.

Cognitive development is characterized by changes in thinking and the way people process information as they grow from birth to death.

Point 4:
Give an example of a theory of cognitive development that supports continuity.

Vygotsky’s theory supports continuity.

Point 5:
Give an example of a theory of cognitive development that supports discontinuity.

Piaget’s theory supports discontinuity.

Point 6:
Describe personality development.

Personality development is characterized by changes in unique behaviors, attitudes, and emotions as an individual grows from birth to death.

Point 7:
Give an example of a theory of personality development that supports continuity.

Behavioral studies support continuity. Kagan’s studies support continuity for temperament, activity level.

Point 8:
Give an example of a theory of personality development that supports discontinuity.

Stage theories support discontinuity.

The controversy of continuity versus discontinuity deals with the question of whether development is gradual with change accumulating until we die, or a sequence of discrete stages that differ in kind, structure, or organization.

Cognitive development refers to development of the ability to think and know. Lev Vygotsky thought that cognitive change is continuous. His sociocultural theory highlights the zone of proximal development (ZPD), which is the distance between what a child can master on his/her own and what a child can master with the assistance of others. Working close to the upper limit of a child’s capability, the instructor and child work closely together to reach that goal and then, through continued practice, the child is able to attain the goal more and more independently. When the goal is achieved without help, then that goal becomes the new lower limit for a new ZPD. So, in Vygotsky’s theory, cognitive development is gradual or continuous.

On the other hand, Jean Piaget in his theory of cognitive development thought that cognitive development is marked by stages during which children have different abilities. He named four stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. During the sensorimotor stage, babies are unable to use symbols, whereas once in the preoperational stage, young children can.

Personality refers to the unique behaviors, attitudes, and emotions of an individual. Theorists who support continuity think that change in an individual’s personality over time is gradual, whereas theorists who support discontinuity think that change occurs in stages.
Behaviorists, such as B. F. Skinner, considered a person’s behavior his/her personality. They attribute a change in behavior to changes in A,B,Cs—antecedents, behaviors, consequences. Change accumulates as a result of learning.

On the other hand, Sigmund Freud proposed his stage theory of psychosexual development. In each stage, the center of pleasure is different, and the child needs to resolve a different conflict to be well adjusted and avoid fixation. For example, if a baby is not successfully weaned from the breast or bottle, he/she may develop an oral aggressive personality or an oral dependent personality. Someone who is oral aggressive can be sarcastic and make biting comments or get into arguments easily.

CHAPTER 4 How to Approach Each Question Type

IN THIS CHAPTER

Summary:
Knowing and applying question-answering strategies helps you succeed on tests. This chapter provides you with many test-taking tips to help you earn a 5 on the AP Psychology exam.

Key Ideas

Multiple-Choice Questions

Read the question carefully.

Try to answer the question yourself before reading the answer choices.

Guess if you can eliminate one or more answer choices.

Drawing a picture may help you.

Don’t spend too much time on any one question.