A Short History of Chinese Philosophy (12 page)

Mencius for a while was one of these eminent scholars, but he also traveled to other states, vainly trying to get a hearing for his ideas among their rulers. Finally, so the Historical Records tell us, he retired and with his disciples composed the Mencius in seven books. This work records the conversations between Mencius and the feudal lords of his time, and between him and his disciples, and in later times it was honored by being made one of the famous "Four Books," which for the past one thousand years have formed the basis of Confucian education.

Meneius represents the idealistic wing of Confucianism, and the somewhat later Hstin Tzu the realistic wing. The meaning of this will become clear as we go on.

The Goodness of Human Nature

We have seen that Confucius spoke very much about jen (humanheartedness), and made a sharp distinction between yi (righteousness) and li (profit). Every man should, without thought of personal advantage, unconditionally do what he ought to do, and be what he ought to be. In other words, he should

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extend himself so as to include others, which, in essence, is the practice of jen. But though Confucius held these doctrines, he failed to explain why it is that a man should act in this way. Mencius, however, attempted to give an answer to this question, and in so doing developed the theory for which he is most famed: that of the original goodness of human nature.

Whether human nature is good or bad-that is, what, precisely, is the nature of human nature—has been one of the most controversial problems in Chinese philosophy. According to Mencius, there were, in his time, three other theories besides his own on this subject. The first was that human nature is neither good nor bad. The second was that human nature can be either good or bad (which seems to mean that in the nature of man there are both good and bad elements), and the third was that the nature of some men is good, and that of others is bad. (Mencius, Via, 3-6.) The first of these theories was held by Kao Tzu, a philosopher who was contemporary with Mencius. We know more about it than the other theories through the long discussions between him and Mencius which are preserved for us in the Men-cms.

When Mencius holds that human nature is good, he does not mean that every man is born a Confucius, that is, a sage. His theory has some similarity with one side of the second theory mentioned above, that is, that in the nature of man there are good elements. He admits, to be sure, that there are also other elements, which are neither good nor bad in themselves, but which, if not duly controlled, can lead to evil. According to Meneius, however, these are elements which man shares in common with other living creatures. They represent the animal aspect of man s life, and therefore, strictly speaking, should not be considered as part of the human nature.

To support his theory, Mencius presents numerous arguments, among them the following: "All men have a mind which cannot bear [to see the suffering of] others .... If now men suddenly see a child about to fall into a well, they will without exception experience a feeling of alarm and distress....From this cuse we may perceive that he who lacks the feeling of commiseration is not a man; that he who lacks a feeling of shame and dislike is not a man; that he who lacks a feeling of modesty and yielding is not a man; and that he who lacks a sense of right and wrong is not a man. The feeling of commiseration is the beginning of humanheartedness. The feeling of shame and dislike is the beginning of righteousness. The feeling of modesty and yielding is the beginning of propriety. The sense of right and wrong is the beginning of wisdom. Man has these four beginnings, just as he has four limbs....Since all men have these four beginnings in themselves, let them know how to give them full development and completion. The result will be like fire that begins to burn, or a spring which has begun to find vent. Let them have their complete development, and they will suffice to protect all within the four seas. If they are denied that development, they will not suffice even to serve one's parents." (Mencius, TIa, 6.) 112 THE IDEALISTIC WING OF CONFUCIANISM: MENCIUS

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All men in their original nature possess these "four beginnings," which, if fully developed, become the four constant virtues, so greatly emphasized in Confucianism. These virtues, if not hindered by external conditions, develop naturally from within, just as a tree grows by itself from the seed, or a flower from the bud. This is the basis of Mencius controversy with Kao Tzu, according to whom human nature is in itself neither good nor bad, and for whom morality is therefore something that is artificially added from without.

There remains another question, which is: Why should man allow free development to his "four beginnings, instead of to what we may call his lower instincts? Mencius answers that it is these four beginnings that differentiate man from the beasts. They should be developed, therefore, because it is only through their development that man is truly a man. Mencius says: That whereby man differs from birds and beasts is but slight. The mass of the people east it away, whereas the superior man preserves it." (Mencius, IVb, 19.) Thus he answers a question which had not occurred to Confucius.

Fundamental Difference between Confucianism, and Mohism

Here we find the fundamental difference between Confucianism and Mo— hism. One of Mencius self-appointed tasks was to "oppose Yang Chu and Mo Ti." He says: "Yang's principle of 'each one for himself' amounts to making one s sovereign of no account. Mo s principle of all—embracing love amounts to making one s lather of no account. To have no father and no sovereign is to be like the birds and beasts....These pernicious opinions mislead the people and block the way of humanheartedness and righteousness. (Mencius, Illb, 9») It is very clear that Yang Chu s theory opposes humanheartedness and righteousness, since the essence of these two virtues is to benefit others, while Yang Chu's principle is to benefit oneself. Rut Mo Tzu s principle of all-embracing love also aimed to benefit others, and he was even more outspoken in this respect than the Confucianists. Why, then, does Mencius lump him together with Yang Chu in his criticism?

The traditional answer is that according to Mohist doctrine, love should have in it no gradations of greater or lesser love, whereas according to Confucianism, the reverse is true. In other words, the Mohists emphasized equality in loving others, while the Confucianists emphasized gradation. This difference is brought out in a passage in the Mo—tzu in which a certain Wu—ma Tzu is reported as saying to Mo Tzu: "[ cannot practice all-embracing love. I love the men of Tsou [a nearby state] better than I love those of Yileh [a distant state]. I love the men of Lu [his own state] better than I love those of Tsou.

I love the men of my own district better than I love those of Lu. I love the members of my own clan better than I love those of my district. 1 love my parents better than 1 love the men of my clan. And I love myself better than 1 love my parents." (Mo-tzu, ch. 46-) Wu-ma Tzu was a Confucianist, and the representation of him as saying, 114 THE IDEALISTIC WING OF CONFUCIANISM: MENCIUS

"I love myself better than I love my parents, comes from a Mohist source and is probably an exaggeration. Certainly it is not consistent with the Confucianist emphasis on filial piety. With this exception, however, Wu -ma Tzu s statement is in general agreement with the Confucianist spirit. For according to the Confucianists, there should be degrees in love.

Speaking about these degrees, Mencius says:' The superior man, in his relation to things, loves them but has no feeling of humanheartedness. In his relation to people, he has humanheartedness, but no deep feeling of family affection. One should have feelings of family affection for the members of one' s family, but human -heartedness for people; human -heartedness for people, but love for things."

(Mencius, Vila, 45.) In a discussion with a Mohist by the name of Yi Chih, Mencius asked him whether he really believed that men love their neighbors children in the same way as they love their brothers children; the love for a brother s child is naturally greater. (Mencius, Ilia, 50 This, according to Mencius, is quite proper; what should be done is to extend such love until it includes the more distant members of society. "Treat the aged in your family as they should be treated, and extend this treatment to the aged of other people's families. Treat the young in your family as they should be treated, and extend this treatment to the young of other people s families. (Mencius, la, 7-) Such is what Mencius calls extending one's scope of activity to include others." (Ibid.) It is an extension based on the principle of graded love.

To extend the love for one s family so as to include persons outside it as well, is to practice that "principle of chung [conscientiousness to others] and shu [altruism]" advocated by Confucius, which in turn is equivalent to the practice of humanheartedness. There is nothing forced in any of these practices, because the original natures of all men have in them a feeling of commiseration, which makes it impossible for them to bear to see the suffering of others. The development of this "beginning" of goodness causes men naturally to love others, but it is equally natural that they should love their parents to a greater degree than they love men in general.

Such is the Confucianist point of view. The Mohists, on the contrary, insist that the love for others should be on a par with the love for parents. Regardless of whether this means that one should love one s parents less, or love others more, the fact remains that the Confucianisl type of graded love should be avoided at all costs. It is with this in mind that Mencius attacks the Mohist principle of all-embracing love as meaning that a man treats his father as of no account.

The above difference between the Confucianist and the Mohist theory of love has been pointed out very clearly by Mencius and by many others after him. Besides this, however, there is another difference of a more fundamental nature. This is, that the Confucianists considered human—heartedness as a quality that develops naturally from within the human nature, whereas the Mohists considered all-embracing love as something artificially added to man Il6 THE IDEALISTIC WING OF CONFUCIANISM: MENCIUS

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from without.

Mo Tzu may also be said to have answered a question that did not occur to Confucius, namely: Why should man practice humanheartedness and righteousness? His answer, however, is based on utilitarianism, and his emphasis on supernatural and political sanctions to compel and induce people to practice all—embracing love is nol consistent with the Confucianist principle that virtue should be done for its own sake. If we compare the Mo—tzu s chapter on "All-Embracing Love, as quoted above in the fifth chapter, with the quotations here from the Mencius on the four moral beginnings in man's nature, we see very clearly the fundamental difference between the two schools.

Political Philosophy

We have seen earlier that the Mohist theory of the origin of state is likewise a utilitarianistic one.

Here again the Confucianist theory differs. Mencius says: If men have satisfied their hunger, have clothes to wear, and live at ease but lack good teaching, they are close to the birds and beasts. The sage [Shun, a legendary sage-ruler J was distressed about this and appointed Hsieh as an official instructor to teach men the basic relationships of life. Father and son should love each other. Ruler and subject should be just to each other. Husband and wife should distinguish their respective spheres. Elder and younger brothers should have a sense of mutual precedence. And between friends there should be good faith. (Mencius, Ilia, 4.) The existence of the human relationships and the moral principles based on them is what differentiates man from birds and beasts. The state and society have their origin in the existence of these human relationships. Therefore, according to the Mohists, the state exists because it is useful. But according to the Confucianists, it exists because it ought to exist.

Men have their full realization and development only in human relationships. Like Aristotle, Mencius maintains that man is a political animal and can fully develop these relationships only within state and society. The state is a moral institution and the head of the state should be a moral leader. Therefore in Confucianist political philosophy only a sage can be a real king. Mencius pictures this ideal as having existed in an idealized past. According to him, there was a time when the sage Yao (supposed to have lived in the twenty-fourth century B.C.) was Emperor. When he was old, he selected a younger sage, Shun, whom he had taught how to be a ruler, so that at Yao s death , Shun became Emp eror. Si mi larl y, wh en Shun was old , h e ag ain selected a younger sage, Yii, to be his successor. Thus the throne was handed from sage to sage, which, according to Mencius, is as it ought to be.

If a ruler lacks the ethical qualities that make a good leader, the people have the moral right of revolution. In that case, even the killing of the ruler is no longer a crime of regicide. This is because, according to Meneius, if a

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sovereign does not act as he ideally ought to do, he morally ceases to be a sovereign and, following Confucius theory of the rectification of names, is a "mere fellow," as Mencius says. (Mencius, lib, 8.) Mencius also says: "The people are the most important element L i n a stateJ; the spirits of the land and the grain are secondary; and the sovereign is the least. (Merwius, Vllb, I4-) These ideas of Mencius have exercised a tremendous influence in Chinese history, even as late as the revolution of 1911, which led to the establishment of the Chinese Republic. It is true that modern democratic ideas from the West played their role too in this event, but the ancient native concept of the right of revolution had a greater influence on the mass of the people.