A Short History of Chinese Philosophy (39 page)

What this chapter calls regulating the internal corresponds to what Hsiang-Kuo call living according to oneself; what it calls regulating external things corresponds to what Hsiang-Kuo call living according to others. One should live according to oneself, and not according to others. That is to say, one should live in accord with one's own reason or impulse, and not according to the customs and morals ol the time. To use a common expression of the third and fourth centuries, one should live according to tzu —jan (the spontaneous, the natural), and not according to ming-chiao (institutions and morals). All the NeoTaoists agree on this. But there is still a difference a-mong them between the rationalists and sentimentalists. The former, as represented by Hsiang-Kuo, emphasize living according to reason, while the latter, as represented by the men who will be mentioned below, emphasize living according to impulse.

The idea of living according to impulse is expressed in extreme form in the "Yang Chu" chapter. In one passage we read that Yen P'ing-chung asked Kuan Yi—wu (both famous statesmen of the state of Ch i in ancient times, though historically they were not contemporaries) about cultivating life. Kuan Yi-wu replied: 'The only way is to give it its free course, neither checking nor obstructing it. Yen P ing—chung asked: And as to details?

"Kuan Yi-wu replied: 'Allow the ear to hear anything that it likes to hear. Allow the eye to see whatever it likes to see. Allow the nose to smell whatever it likes to smell. Allow the mouth to say whatever it likes to say. Allow the body to enjoy whatever it likes to enjoy. Allow the mind to do whatever it likes to do.

What the ear likes to hear is music, and prohibition of the hearing of music is called obstruction to the ear. What the eye likes to see is beauty, and prohibition of the seeing of beauty is called obstruction to sight. What the nose likes to smell is perfume, and prohibition of the smelling of perfume is called obstruction to smell. Whal the mouth likes to talk about is right and wrong, and prohibition of the talking about right and wrong is called obstruction to understanding. What the body likes to enjoy is rich food and fine clothing, and prohibition of the enjoying of these is called obstruction to the sensations of the body. What the mind likes is to be free, and prohibition of this freedom is called obstruction to the nature.

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All these obstructions are the main causes of the vexations of life. To get rid of these causes and enjoy oneself until death, for a day, a month, a year, or ten years-this is what I call cultivating life. To cling to these causes and be unable to rid oneself of them, so as thus to have a long but sad life, extending a hundred, a thousand, or even ten thousand years-this is not what I call cultivating life.'

Kuan Yi—wu then went on: Now that I have told you about cultivating life, what about the way of taking care of the dead?' Yen P ing -chung replied: 'Taking care of the dead is a very simple matter....For once I am dead, what does it matter to me? They may burn my body, or cast it into deep water, or inter it, or leave it uninterred, or throw it wrapped up in a mat into some ditch, or cover it with princely apparel and embroidered garments and rest it in a stone sarcophagus. All depends on chance.'

"Turning to Pao-shu Huang-tzu, Kuan Yi-wu then said : 'We two have by this made some progress in the way of life and death.

Living According to Impulse

What the "Yang Chu" chapter here describes represents the spirit of the age of Chin, but not the whole or best of that spirit. For in this chapter, us exemplified by the above, what "Yang Chu" seems to be interested in is mostly the search for pleasure of a rather coarse sort. To be sure, the pursuit of such pleasure is not, according to NeoTaoism, necessarily to be despised. Nevertheless, if this is made our sole aim, without any understanding of what "transcends shapes and features," to use the NeoTaoist expression, this can hardly be called feng liu in the best sense of the term.

In the Shih—shuo we have a story about Liu Ling (c. 121— c. yX)), one of the Seven Worthies of the Bamboo Grove (seven famous scholars" who gathered for frequent convivial conversations in a certain bamboo grove). This story tells us that Liu evoked criticism through his habit of remaining completely naked when in his room. To his critics he rejoined: "I take the whole universe as my house and my own room as my clothing. Why, then, do you enter here into my trousers? (Ch. 2.3) Thus Liu Ling, though he sought for pleasure, had a feeling of what lies beyond the world, i.e., the universe. This feeling is essential for the quality atfeng liu.

Those who have this feeling and who cultivate their mind in Taoism, must have a more subtle sensitivity for pleasure and more refined needs than sheerly sensual ones. The Shih-shuo records many unconventional activities among the "famous scholars" of the time. They acted according to pure impulse, but not with any thought of sensuous pleasure. Thus one of the stories in the Shih-shuo says:"Wang Hui-chih [died c. 388, son of China's greatest ealligrapher, Wang Hsi-chih] was living at Shan-yin [near present Hang-chow], One night he was awakened by a heavy snowfall. Opening the window, he saw a gleaming whiteness all about him....Suddenly he thought of his

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friend Tai K'uei. Immediately he took a boat and went to see Tai. It required the whole night for him to reach Tai's house, but when he was just about to knock at the door, he stopped and returned home.

When asked the reason for this act, he replied: I came on the impulse of my pleasure, and now it is ended, so I go back. Why should I see Tai? (Ch. 23.)

The Shih—shuo records another story which says that Chung Hui (2.25~2.(54, a statesman, general, and writer) regretted that he had not yet enjoyed the opportunity of meeting Chi K'ang (223-262, a philosopher and writer). Therefore he one day went with several other notables to visit him. Chi K ang's hobby was that of forging metal, and when Chung Hui arrived there, he found Chi K ang at his forge under a great tree. Hsiang Hsiu (author of the Commentary on Chuang—tzu described in the last chapter) was assisting Chi K ang to blow the fire with a bellows, and Chi K ang himself continued his hammering just as if no one else were there. For a while the host and guests did not exchange a single word. But when Chung Hui started to go, Chi K ang asked him: What did you hear that caused you to come, and what have you seen that causes you to go?" To this Chung Hui answered: "l heard what I heard, so I came, and I have seen what I have seen, so I go. (Ch. 24.) .

The men of the Chin dynasty greatly admired the physical and spiritual beauty of a great personality.

Chi K ang was famous for his personality, which was compared by some people to a jade mountain and by others to a pine tree. (Shih-shiw, ch. 14.) Perhaps it was these things that Chung heard of and saw.

Another story in the Shih—shuo tells us: When Wang Hui—chih was traveling by boat, he met Huan Yi traveling by land along the bank. Wang Hui-chih had heard of Huan Yi's fame as a flute player but he was not acquainted with him. When someone told him that the man traveling on the bank was Huan Yi, he sent a messenger to ask him to play the flute. Huan Yi had also heard of the fame of Wang Hui—ehih, so he descended from his chariot, sat on a chair, and played the flute three times. After that, he ascended his chariot and went away. The two men did not exchange even a single word." (Ch. 23.) They did not do this because what they wished to enjoy was only the pure beauty of the music. Wang Hui—chih asked Huan Yi to play the flute for him, because he knew he could play it well, and Huan Yi played for him, because he knew Wang could appreciate his playing. When this had been done, what else was there to talk about?

The Shih-shuo contains another story which says that Chih-tun (314-366, famous Buddhist monk) was fond of cranes. Once a friend gave him two young ones. When they grew up, Chih—tun was forced to clip their wings so that they would not fly away. When this was done, the cranes looked de-spondent, and Chih-tun too was depressed, and said: "Since they have wings that can reach the sky, how can they be content to be a pet of man? Hence

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when their feathers had grown again, he let the cranes fly away. (Ch. 2.)

Another story tells us about Juan Chi (210-2.63, a philosopher and poet), and his nephew Juan Hsien, who were two of the Seveii Worthies of the Bamboo Grove. All members of the Juan family were great drinkers, and when they met, they did not bother to drink out of cups, but simply sat around a large wine jar and drank from that. Sometimes the pigs also came, wanting a drink, and then the Juans drank together with the pigs. (Ch. 23.)

The sympathy of Chih-tun for the cranes and the indiscriminate generosity of the Juans to the pigs show that they had a feeling of equality and non-difTerentiation between themselves and other things of nature. This feeling is essential in order to have the quality oifeng liu and to be artistic. For a true artist must be able to project his own sentiment to the object he depicts, and then express it through his medium. Chih-tun himself would not have liked to be a pet of man, and he projected this sentiment to the cranes. Though he is not known to have been an artist, he was, in this sense, a very real one.

The Emotional Factor

As we have seen in chapter ten, the sage, according to Chuang Tzu, has no emotions. He has a high understanding of the nature of things, and so is not affected by their changes and transformations. He disperses emotion with reason. The Shih—shuo records many people who had no emotions. The most famous case is that of Hsieh An (32.O-385). When he was Prime Minister at the Chin court, the northern state of Ch in started a large—scale offensive against Chin. Its army was led by the Ch in Emperor in person, and so great was it that the Emperor boasted that his soldiers, by throwing their whips into the Yangtze River, could block its course. The people of Chin were greatly alarmed, but Hsieh An calmly and quietly appointed one of his nephews, Hsieh Hsiin, to lead an army against the invaders. At a battle famous in history as the Battle of the Fei River, in the year 383, Hsieh Hsiln won a decisive victory and the men of Ch in were driven back. When the news of the final victory reached Hsieh An, he was playing chess with a friend. He opened the letter, read it, and then put it aside and continued to play as before. When the friend asked what was the news from the front, Hsieh An, as calmly as ever, replied: Our boys have decisively defeated the enemy.

(Ch. 6.)

The San Kuo Chih or History of the Three Kingdoms, however, records a discussion between Ho Yen (died 2.49) and Wang Pi (226-249, greatest commentator on the Lao-tzu) on the subject of the emotions. Ho Yen, following the original theory of Chuang Tzu, maintained that "the sage has neither pleasure nor anger, sorrow nor gladness. In this he was seconded by Chung Hui (the man who went to visit Chi K'ang in the story given above). Wang Pi, however, held a different opinion.

According to him, "that in which the sage is superior to ordinary people is the spirit. But what the sage has in

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common with ordinary people are the emotions. The sage has a superior spirit, and therefore is able to be in harmony with the universe and to hold communion with Wu Li.e., the Tool. But the sage has ordinary emotions, and therefore cannol respond to things without joy or sorrow. He responds to things, yet is not ensnared by them. It is wrong to say that because the sage has no ensnarement, he therefore has no emotions. (Ch. 28, Commentary.)

The theory of Wang Pi can be summarized by the statement that the sage "has emotions but no ensnaremenl." What this statement exactly means, Wang Pi does not make clear. Its implications were developed much later by Neo-Confucianism, and we shall have a chance to analyze them in chapter 24.

At present we need merely point out that though many of the Neo -Taoists were very rational, there were also many who were very sentimental.

As stated earlier, the Neo—Taoists stressed subtle sensitivily. Having this sensitivity, coupled with the afore-mentioned theory of sel-fexpression, it is not surprising that many of ihem gave free vent to their emotions anywhere and at any time these emotions arose.

An example is the Shih-shuo's story about Wang Jung (234-305), one of the Seven Worthies of the Bamboo Grove. When Wang lost a child, his friend Shan Chicn went to condole him. Wang could not restrain himself from weeping, whereupon Shan said to him: "It was only a baby, so why do you behave like this?" Wang Jung replied: "The sage forgets emotions, and lowly people [who are insensitiveJ do not reach emotions. It is people like ourselves who have the most emotions. To this Shan Chien agreed and wept also. (Ch. 17.)

This saying of Wang Jung explains very well why many of the Neo—Taoists were sentimentalists. In most cases, however, they were sentimental, not about some personal loss or gain, but about some general aspect of life or of the universe. The Shih-shuo says that Wei Chieh (286-312, known as the most beautiful personality of his time), when about to cross the Yangtze River, felt much depressed, and said: When T see this vast L river J, I cannot help but feel that all kinds of sentiments are gathering in my mind. Being not without feeling, how can one endure these emotions? (Ch. 2.) The Shih-shuo says also that every time Huan Yi, the flute player mentioned earlier, heard people singing, he would exclaim: What can I do! Hsieh An heard of this and remarked: Huan Yi can indeed be said to have deep feelings." (Ch. 23.)