Blood of Tyrants: George Washington & the Forging of the Presidency (48 page)
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Authors: Logan Beirne
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14
“Gilbert Stuart,” in
The National Portrait Gallery of Distinguished Americans
, ed. James B. Longacre and James Herring (1834), 1:35.
“Gilbert Stuart,” in
The National Portrait Gallery of Distinguished Americans
, ed. James B. Longacre and James Herring (1834), 1:35.
15
Ibid., 34.
Ibid., 34.
16
James Thomas Flexner,
On Desperate Seas: A Biography of Gilbert Stuart
(1955; New York: Fordham University Press, 1995), 124.
James Thomas Flexner,
On Desperate Seas: A Biography of Gilbert Stuart
(1955; New York: Fordham University Press, 1995), 124.
17
Isaac Weld,
Travels Through the States of North America, and the Provinces of Upper and Lower Canada, During the Years 1795, 1796, and 1797
, 2nd ed. (London: John Stockdale, 1799), 105.
Isaac Weld,
Travels Through the States of North America, and the Provinces of Upper and Lower Canada, During the Years 1795, 1796, and 1797
, 2nd ed. (London: John Stockdale, 1799), 105.
18
Ibid.
Ibid.
19
Flexner,
On Desperate Seas
, 124.
Flexner,
On Desperate Seas
, 124.
20
Paul F. Boller,
Presidential Anecdotes
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), 6.
Paul F. Boller,
Presidential Anecdotes
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), 6.
21
Weld,
Travels Through the States of North America
, 104–9.
Weld,
Travels Through the States of North America
, 104–9.
22
Gordon S. Wood, “President George Washington, Republican Monarch,” James Madison Leadership Conference Paper (Princeton University), 3.
Gordon S. Wood, “President George Washington, Republican Monarch,” James Madison Leadership Conference Paper (Princeton University), 3.
23
Pickell,
A New Chapter
, vii.
Pickell,
A New Chapter
, vii.
24
Ibid.
Chapter 2: Not as Happy in Peace as They Had Been Glorious in WarIbid.
1
Alexander Hamilton, “Report Relative to a Provision for the Support of Public Credit,” January 9, 1790, in
The Papers of Alexander Hamilton
, ed. Harold C. Syrett et al. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1961–87), 6:51–110.
Alexander Hamilton, “Report Relative to a Provision for the Support of Public Credit,” January 9, 1790, in
The Papers of Alexander Hamilton
, ed. Harold C. Syrett et al. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1961–87), 6:51–110.
2
“Bill Providing for Delegates to the Convention of 1787,” November 6, 1786, in
The Papers of James Madison, Congressional Series
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1975), 9:163.
“Bill Providing for Delegates to the Convention of 1787,” November 6, 1786, in
The Papers of James Madison, Congressional Series
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1975), 9:163.
3
Thomas Jefferson to William Plumer, July 21,1816, Thomas Jefferson Papers, 1606–1943 (bulk 1775–1826), Manuscripts Division, Library of Congress. Jefferson made this statement years after the time discussed here, but it expresses the fears of the crushing public debt that gripped the nation following the Revolution.
Thomas Jefferson to William Plumer, July 21,1816, Thomas Jefferson Papers, 1606–1943 (bulk 1775–1826), Manuscripts Division, Library of Congress. Jefferson made this statement years after the time discussed here, but it expresses the fears of the crushing public debt that gripped the nation following the Revolution.
4
Ibid.
Ibid.
5
National Gazette
, September 11, 1792. Hamilton was, of course, the force behind assuming the states’ war debts and creating the national bank to service it.
National Gazette
, September 11, 1792. Hamilton was, of course, the force behind assuming the states’ war debts and creating the national bank to service it.
6
James Madison to Henry Lee, April 13, 1790, in
The Papers of James Madison, Congressional Series
, 13:147.
James Madison to Henry Lee, April 13, 1790, in
The Papers of James Madison, Congressional Series
, 13:147.
7
Many of the notes were no longer held by the veterans at this point, but by speculators. For more on the speculation surrounding bonds in the 1780s, see Woody Holton,
Unruly Americans and the Origins of the Constitution
(New York: Hill & Wang, 2007).
Many of the notes were no longer held by the veterans at this point, but by speculators. For more on the speculation surrounding bonds in the 1780s, see Woody Holton,
Unruly Americans and the Origins of the Constitution
(New York: Hill & Wang, 2007).
8
Circular to the States, June 8, 1783, in
The Writings of George Washington
, 26:289–90.
Circular to the States, June 8, 1783, in
The Writings of George Washington
, 26:289–90.
9
“To the United States Senate and House of Representatives,” in
The Papers of George Washington
,
Presidential Series
, 14:462–67.
“To the United States Senate and House of Representatives,” in
The Papers of George Washington
,
Presidential Series
, 14:462–67.
10
Washington’s Farewell Address, September 19, 1796, in
The Writings of George Washington
, 35:231.
Washington’s Farewell Address, September 19, 1796, in
The Writings of George Washington
, 35:231.
11
“To Form a More Perfect Union: Identifying Defects in the Confederation,” The Library of Congress Essay Collection: Documents from the Continental Congress and the Constitutional Convention, 1774–1789.
“To Form a More Perfect Union: Identifying Defects in the Confederation,” The Library of Congress Essay Collection: Documents from the Continental Congress and the Constitutional Convention, 1774–1789.
12
Journals of the Continental Congress
, 30:366.
Journals of the Continental Congress
, 30:366.
13
Diary Entry for June 30, 1785, in
The Papers of George Washington, Diaries
, 4:157. See also Chernow,
Washington: A Life
, 467.
Diary Entry for June 30, 1785, in
The Papers of George Washington, Diaries
, 4:157. See also Chernow,
Washington: A Life
, 467.
14
Proceedings of the town of Charlestown, in the county of Middlesex, and Commonwealth of Massachusetts; in Respectful Testimony of the Distinguished Talents and Prominent Virtues of the Late George Washington
, ed. Samuel Etheridge (1800), 18.
Proceedings of the town of Charlestown, in the county of Middlesex, and Commonwealth of Massachusetts; in Respectful Testimony of the Distinguished Talents and Prominent Virtues of the Late George Washington
, ed. Samuel Etheridge (1800), 18.
15
Thomas E. Woods, Jr., “The Revolutionary War and the Destruction of the Continental,” Ludwig von Mises Institute,
Mises Daily
(online), October 11, 2006.
Thomas E. Woods, Jr., “The Revolutionary War and the Destruction of the Continental,” Ludwig von Mises Institute,
Mises Daily
(online), October 11, 2006.
16
Samuel Breck,
Historical Sketch of Continental Paper Money
(1863), 15.
Samuel Breck,
Historical Sketch of Continental Paper Money
(1863), 15.
17
Ralph Volney Harlow, “Aspects of Revolutionary Finance, 1775–1783,”
American Historical Review
35 (October 1929): 46–68.
Ralph Volney Harlow, “Aspects of Revolutionary Finance, 1775–1783,”
American Historical Review
35 (October 1929): 46–68.
18
Washington to Joseph Reed, December 12, 1778, in
The Papers of George Washington, Revolutionary War Series
, 18:396–98.
Washington to Joseph Reed, December 12, 1778, in
The Papers of George Washington, Revolutionary War Series
, 18:396–98.
19
In light of the economic chaos and diverging currencies, trade among the states plummeted, thereby thinning the economic tether that bound the largely independent states. In a vicious spiral, the not-so-united states competed with one another for their share of diminishing economic resources. Seeking to protect their citizens from this competition, the states imposed tariffs on goods from their sister states. But this ended up hurting citizens on both sides of the border.
In light of the economic chaos and diverging currencies, trade among the states plummeted, thereby thinning the economic tether that bound the largely independent states. In a vicious spiral, the not-so-united states competed with one another for their share of diminishing economic resources. Seeking to protect their citizens from this competition, the states imposed tariffs on goods from their sister states. But this ended up hurting citizens on both sides of the border.
For example, New York had long been supplied with firewood from Connecticut’s bountiful forests. But in these difficult times, the New Yorkers decided to keep their hard-earned dollars from flowing “into the pockets of detested Yankees.” John Fiske,
The Critical Period of American History, 1783–1789
(Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1898), 173. And so New York slapped a protective tariff on all ships arriving from Connecticut. These ships from the neighboring state were required to pay entrance fees and clear customs, just like ships from London. “Great and just was the wrath” of the Connecticut lumbermen. In fact, the tariff so damaged the Connecticut economy that the state held a large meeting of businessmen, who decided to suspend all trade with the “hated state” of New York. Ibid. (Fiske exaggerates the level of animosity. There was certainly resentment, but “hate” is strong, although it provides good color.) Both economies wound up worse off, as both lost a market for their goods.
The Critical Period of American History, 1783–1789
(Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1898), 173. And so New York slapped a protective tariff on all ships arriving from Connecticut. These ships from the neighboring state were required to pay entrance fees and clear customs, just like ships from London. “Great and just was the wrath” of the Connecticut lumbermen. In fact, the tariff so damaged the Connecticut economy that the state held a large meeting of businessmen, who decided to suspend all trade with the “hated state” of New York. Ibid. (Fiske exaggerates the level of animosity. There was certainly resentment, but “hate” is strong, although it provides good color.) Both economies wound up worse off, as both lost a market for their goods.
The trade war hurt not only the producers but also the consumers in both states. The tariffs relieved competition on the local producers, thus allowing them to raise their prices. For example, New York producers, sheltered by tariffs, could raise their prices without having to worry about their customers buying from cheaper Connecticut producers instead. In this way, local consumers often ended up paying more.
20
“The Federalist No. 9,” in
Alexander Hamilton: Writings
, Library of America, ed. Joanne B. Freeman (New York: Penguin, 2001), 196–201.
“The Federalist No. 9,” in
Alexander Hamilton: Writings
, Library of America, ed. Joanne B. Freeman (New York: Penguin, 2001), 196–201.
21
Alfred P. Thom, “‘A Right of States’ Which Is Often Overlooked,”
Railway Age Gazette
59 (1915), 49.
Alfred P. Thom, “‘A Right of States’ Which Is Often Overlooked,”
Railway Age Gazette
59 (1915), 49.
22
Washington to James Warren, October 7, 1785. Here I have used the wording from the Fitzpatrick edition of
The Writings of George Washington
because the “shadow” concept holds true. (“In a word, the confederation appears to me to be little more than a shadow without the substance; and Congress a nugatory body, their ordinances being little attended to.”) The actual text of that sentence reads: “In a word, the Confederation appears to me to be little more than an empty sound, and Congress a nugatory body; the ordinances of it being very little attended to.” See Washington to James Warren, October 7, 1785, in
The Papers of George Washington, Confederation Series
, 3:299.
Chapter 3: The Shadow GovernmentWashington to James Warren, October 7, 1785. Here I have used the wording from the Fitzpatrick edition of
The Writings of George Washington
because the “shadow” concept holds true. (“In a word, the confederation appears to me to be little more than a shadow without the substance; and Congress a nugatory body, their ordinances being little attended to.”) The actual text of that sentence reads: “In a word, the Confederation appears to me to be little more than an empty sound, and Congress a nugatory body; the ordinances of it being very little attended to.” See Washington to James Warren, October 7, 1785, in
The Papers of George Washington, Confederation Series
, 3:299.
1
This description is based on portraits created after his death, since “there is no known image of him except for a crude woodcut in the National Portrait Gallery.” “Daniel Shays,” Bringing History to Life: The People of Shays’ Rebellion, Springfield Technical Community College.
This description is based on portraits created after his death, since “there is no known image of him except for a crude woodcut in the National Portrait Gallery.” “Daniel Shays,” Bringing History to Life: The People of Shays’ Rebellion, Springfield Technical Community College.
2
James Russell Trumbull,
History of Northampton, Massachusetts, from Its Settlement in 1654
(Northampton: Gazette Printing Company, 1898–1902), 2:491.
James Russell Trumbull,
History of Northampton, Massachusetts, from Its Settlement in 1654
(Northampton: Gazette Printing Company, 1898–1902), 2:491.
3
Gregory Nobles, “Shays and His Neighbors,” in
In Debt to Shays: The Bicentennial of an Agrarian Insurrection,
ed. Robert Gross (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1993), 185–203.
Gregory Nobles, “Shays and His Neighbors,” in
In Debt to Shays: The Bicentennial of an Agrarian Insurrection,
ed. Robert Gross (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1993), 185–203.
4
Address from the General Court to the People of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts (Boston: Adams & Nourse, 1786), 40.
Address from the General Court to the People of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts (Boston: Adams & Nourse, 1786), 40.
5
Howard Zinn,
A People’s History of the United States: 1492–Present
(New York: HarperCollins, 1999), 94.
Howard Zinn,
A People’s History of the United States: 1492–Present
(New York: HarperCollins, 1999), 94.
6
Journals of the Continental Congress
, 32:93–95.
Journals of the Continental Congress
, 32:93–95.
7
Hampshire Gazette
, September 13, 1786.
Hampshire Gazette
, September 13, 1786.
8
Marion L. Starkey,
A Little Rebellion
(New York: Knopf, 1955), 101.
Marion L. Starkey,
A Little Rebellion
(New York: Knopf, 1955), 101.
9
Petersham Monument (1987), qtd. in “Daniel Shays,” Bringing History to Life: The People of Shays’ Rebellion, Springfield Technical Community College.
Petersham Monument (1987), qtd. in “Daniel Shays,” Bringing History to Life: The People of Shays’ Rebellion, Springfield Technical Community College.
10
Washington to David Humphreys, December 26, 1786, in
The Papers of George Washington
,
Confederation Series
, 4:478.
Washington to David Humphreys, December 26, 1786, in
The Papers of George Washington
,
Confederation Series
, 4:478.
11
Washington to James Madison, November 5, 1786, in ibid., 4:331.
Washington to James Madison, November 5, 1786, in ibid., 4:331.
12
Washington to James Warren, October 7, 1785, in ibid., 3:298–301.
Washington to James Warren, October 7, 1785, in ibid., 3:298–301.
13
Washington to John Jay, August 1, 1786, in ibid., 4:212.
Washington to John Jay, August 1, 1786, in ibid., 4:212.
14
Washington to James McHenry, August 22, 1785, in ibid., 3:198.
Washington to James McHenry, August 22, 1785, in ibid., 3:198.
15
Washington to Jay, 4:212.
Chapter 4: The PhoenixWashington to Jay, 4:212.
1
Carl Van Doren,
The Great Rehearsal: The Story of the Making and Ratifying of the Constitution of the United States
(1948; New York: Praeger, 1982), 1.
Carl Van Doren,
The Great Rehearsal: The Story of the Making and Ratifying of the Constitution of the United States
(1948; New York: Praeger, 1982), 1.
2
Ibid.
Ibid.
3
Washington to George Steptoe Washington, March 23, 1789, in
The Papers of George Washington
,
Presidential Series
, 1:438–41.
Washington to George Steptoe Washington, March 23, 1789, in
The Papers of George Washington
,
Presidential Series
, 1:438–41.
4
With the exception of Rhode Island, which believed the convention to be illegal.
With the exception of Rhode Island, which believed the convention to be illegal.
5
Merrill Jensen,
The Articles of Confederation: An Interpretation of the Social-Constitutional History of the American Revolution, 1774–1781
(Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1940), 5n6.
Merrill Jensen,
The Articles of Confederation: An Interpretation of the Social-Constitutional History of the American Revolution, 1774–1781
(Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1940), 5n6.
6
Bruce Ackerman, “A United States of Europe?”
Los Angeles Times
, December 14, 2011.
Bruce Ackerman, “A United States of Europe?”
Los Angeles Times
, December 14, 2011.
7
Van Doren,
The Great Rehearsal
, 9.
Van Doren,
The Great Rehearsal
, 9.
8
For an excellent anecdote regarding the importance Washington placed on punctuality, see Chernow,
Washington: A Life
, 392–93.
For an excellent anecdote regarding the importance Washington placed on punctuality, see Chernow,
Washington: A Life
, 392–93.
9
Stanley Finger and Ian S. Hagemann, “Benjamin Franklin’s Risk Factors for Gout and Stones: From Genes and Diet to Possible Lead Poisoning,”
Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society
152 no. 2 (2008): 189.
Stanley Finger and Ian S. Hagemann, “Benjamin Franklin’s Risk Factors for Gout and Stones: From Genes and Diet to Possible Lead Poisoning,”
Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society
152 no. 2 (2008): 189.
10
About 75 percent of the delegates had served in the Continental Congress and many had fought in the American Revolution. For short biographical entries for each delegate in the best, most accessible single-volume narrative of the Constitutional Convention, see Carol Berkin,
A Brilliant Solution: Inventing the American Constitution
(New York: Harcourt Brace, 2002), 211–61.
About 75 percent of the delegates had served in the Continental Congress and many had fought in the American Revolution. For short biographical entries for each delegate in the best, most accessible single-volume narrative of the Constitutional Convention, see Carol Berkin,
A Brilliant Solution: Inventing the American Constitution
(New York: Harcourt Brace, 2002), 211–61.
11
William Pierce stated that “there is an impetuosity in his temper that is injurious to him; but there is an honest rectitude about him that makes him a valuable Member of Society.” William Pierce, Character Sketches of Delegates to the Federal Convention (1787).
William Pierce stated that “there is an impetuosity in his temper that is injurious to him; but there is an honest rectitude about him that makes him a valuable Member of Society.” William Pierce, Character Sketches of Delegates to the Federal Convention (1787).
12
Gordon Lloyd, “The Constitutional Convention,” Teaching American History Project, Ashbrook Center for Public Affairs at Ashland University.
Gordon Lloyd, “The Constitutional Convention,” Teaching American History Project, Ashbrook Center for Public Affairs at Ashland University.
13
Thomas Jefferson,
The Jefferson Cyclopedia
, ed. John P. Foley (New York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1900), 522.
Thomas Jefferson,
The Jefferson Cyclopedia
, ed. John P. Foley (New York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1900), 522.
14
Ibid.
Ibid.
15
Richard C. Box,
Public Administration and Society: Critical Issues in American Governance
(Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 2004), 66.
Richard C. Box,
Public Administration and Society: Critical Issues in American Governance
(Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 2004), 66.
16
Lloyd, “The Constitutional Convention.”
Lloyd, “The Constitutional Convention.”
17
On the role of clothing in politics, see Kate Haulman,
The Politics of Fashion in Eighteenth-Century America
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2011).
On the role of clothing in politics, see Kate Haulman,
The Politics of Fashion in Eighteenth-Century America
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2011).
18
All except Franklin, who was also world-renowned.
Chapter 5: Wield the SwordAll except Franklin, who was also world-renowned.
1
R. D. Rotunda, “Original Intent, the View of the Framers, and the Role of the Ratifiers,”
Vanderbilt Law Review
41 (1988): 510.
R. D. Rotunda, “Original Intent, the View of the Framers, and the Role of the Ratifiers,”
Vanderbilt Law Review
41 (1988): 510.
2
Carl Van Doren,
The Great Rehearsal
(Praeger, 1982), 24.
Carl Van Doren,
The Great Rehearsal
(Praeger, 1982), 24.
3
Isaac Weld,
Travels Through the States of North America, and the Provinces of Upper and Lower Canada, During the Years 1795, 1796, and 1797
, 2nd ed. (London: John Stockdale, 1799), 104–9.
Isaac Weld,
Travels Through the States of North America, and the Provinces of Upper and Lower Canada, During the Years 1795, 1796, and 1797
, 2nd ed. (London: John Stockdale, 1799), 104–9.
4
Slaves’ teeth were far less expensive.
Slaves’ teeth were far less expensive.
5
Ibid.
Ibid.
6
Van Doren,
The Great Rehearsal
, 24.
Van Doren,
The Great Rehearsal
, 24.
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