Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology (614 page)
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Authors: Timothy Darvill
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roller stamping
[Ge].
[Ge].
Impressed decoration applied by a roller in a repetitive sequence. It usually comprises three or more small panels of design, with different patterns, which have been cut into the roller; not to be confused with stamped wares which have no regular sequence of pattern but a haphazard arrangement due to the use of one or more independent dies.
Roman
(Roman empire)
[CP].
(Roman empire)
[CP].
One of the largest ancient empire states known, the Roman empire began in central Italy in the middle of the 1st millennium
bc
. In the wake of collapsing
ETRUSCAN
cultures Rome expanded through a mixture of force and diplomacy so that by 250 bc it controlled the whole of peninsular Italy. This expansion inevitably led to conflicts with existing powers around the Mediterranean, especially Carthage, and Rome's struggle to control the western Mediterranean, the Punic Wars, lasted more than a century, Carthage finally being captured in 146 bc.
Until the mid 1st century
bc
the Roman world was a republic, governed from its centre by a senate and two annually elected consuls. Julius Caesar's assassination in 44 bc was followed by the development of imperial rule, headed by the first emperor, Augustus . Further expansion followed, and by the 2nd century
ad
the empire was at its largest, extending for more than 4000km east to west and 3700km north to south. Its population was more than 50 million, most living in self-governing provinces. The army amounted to more than 300000 soldiers, mainly concentrated around the fringes of the empire to defend its borders.
The main source of wealth was agriculture, although a vast and extensive trading economy based on luxury goods as well as staples developed around the Mediterranean, along the Atlantic seaways to the west, and eastwards into the Black Sea and beyond to India and China.
Culturally, the empire always had an eastern part in which Greek was the dominant language and a western part where Latin was dominant. The dividing line ran along the Adriatic coast of Dalmatia. Politically these two regions began to pull apart from the 3rd century
ad
onwards, and in the 4th century they were more formally divided. In the 5th century Rome's control over the western empire collapsed as barbarian groups broke down its borders; the eastern empire continued to flourish from its capital in Constantinople, eventually becoming the Christian Greek world of Byzantium.
bc
. In the wake of collapsing
ETRUSCAN
cultures Rome expanded through a mixture of force and diplomacy so that by 250 bc it controlled the whole of peninsular Italy. This expansion inevitably led to conflicts with existing powers around the Mediterranean, especially Carthage, and Rome's struggle to control the western Mediterranean, the Punic Wars, lasted more than a century, Carthage finally being captured in 146 bc.
Until the mid 1st century
bc
the Roman world was a republic, governed from its centre by a senate and two annually elected consuls. Julius Caesar's assassination in 44 bc was followed by the development of imperial rule, headed by the first emperor, Augustus . Further expansion followed, and by the 2nd century
ad
the empire was at its largest, extending for more than 4000km east to west and 3700km north to south. Its population was more than 50 million, most living in self-governing provinces. The army amounted to more than 300000 soldiers, mainly concentrated around the fringes of the empire to defend its borders.
The main source of wealth was agriculture, although a vast and extensive trading economy based on luxury goods as well as staples developed around the Mediterranean, along the Atlantic seaways to the west, and eastwards into the Black Sea and beyond to India and China.
Culturally, the empire always had an eastern part in which Greek was the dominant language and a western part where Latin was dominant. The dividing line ran along the Adriatic coast of Dalmatia. Politically these two regions began to pull apart from the 3rd century
ad
onwards, and in the 4th century they were more formally divided. In the 5th century Rome's control over the western empire collapsed as barbarian groups broke down its borders; the eastern empire continued to flourish from its capital in Constantinople, eventually becoming the Christian Greek world of Byzantium.
Roman barrow
[MC].
[MC].
A substantial circular mound of earth and stone up to 50m across, usually with steep sides and a slightly flattened top, covering one or more burials. The burials are variously cremations or inhumations, the barrows themselves occurring singly or in groups of up to ten. Their location near to Roman towns and cities in areas where
ROUND BARROWS
were used for burial during prehistoric times suggests that these Roman structures may in part reflect the continuation of local traditions.
ROUND BARROWS
were used for burial during prehistoric times suggests that these Roman structures may in part reflect the continuation of local traditions.
Roman camp
[MC].
[MC].
Roman emperors
Julio-Claudians
Augustus (Octavian) 27 BC–AD 14 (sole ruler from 30 BC)
Tiberius 14–37
Gaius (Caligula) 37–41
Claudius 41–54
Nero 54–68
Galba 68–9
Otho 69
Vitellius 69–70
Flavians
Vespasian 69–79
Titus 79–81
Domitian 81–96
Nerva 96–8
Trajan 98–117
Hadrian 117–38
Antonines
Antoninus Pius 138–61
Marcus Aurelius 161–80
Lucius Verus 161–9 (with M. Aurelius)
Commodus 180–92
Pertinax 193
Didius Julianus 193
Severan House and its rivals
Septimius Severus 193–211
Clodius Albinus 193–7
Pescennius Niger 193–4
Caracalla 211–17
Geta 211–12
Macrinus 217–18
Elagabalus 218–22
Severus Alexander 222–35
Maximinus (Thrax) 235–8
Pupienus 238
Balbinus 238
Gordian I 238
Gordian II 238
Gordian III 238–44
Philip I (the Arab) 244–9
Philip II 244–9
Uranius 248–53
Pacatianus 248
Jotapianus 249
Decius 249–51
Herennius Etruscus 250–1
Hostilianus 250–1
Gallus 251–3
Volusianus 251–3
Aemilianus 253
Valerian 253–9/60
Gallienus 253–68
Macrianus 260
Regalianus 261
Aureolus 267–8
Laelianus 268
Marius 268
Gallic emperors
Postumus 260–9
Victorinus 269–71
Tetricus 271–3
Claudius II (Gothicus) 268–70
Quintillius 270
Aurelian 270–5
Domitian II uncertain
Vaballathus 270–1
Tacitus 275–6
Florianus 276
Probus 276–82
Saturninus 280
Carus 282–3
Julianus 283
Carinus 283–5
Numerian 283–4
The Tetrarchy
Diocletian 284–305
Maximian 286–305, 307–8
Constantius I (Chlorus) 305–6 (Caesar 293–305)
Galerius 305–11 (Caesar293–305)
Carausius287–93
Allectus 293–6 (Britain)
Achilles 296
Flavius Severus 306–7
Maximin Daia 310–13
Maxentius 307–12
Alexander 308–11
Licinius 308–24
House of Constantine
Constantine I (Constantine the Great) 306–37
Valens 314
Martinianus 323
Constantine II 337–40
Constans 337–50
Constantius II 337–61
Nepotianus 350
Vetranio 350
Magnentius 350–3
Claudius Silvanus 355
Juilian (the Apostate) 360–3 (Caesar 355–60)
Jovian 363–4
House of Valentinian
Valentinian I 364–75
Valens 364–78
Gratian 375–83
Procopius 365–6
Valentinian II 375–92
Magnus Maximus 383–8
Flavius Victor 384–8
Eugenius 392–4
House of Theodosius
Theodosius I (Theodosius the Great) 379–95
Western emperors
Honorius 395–424
Marcus 406? (in Britain)
Gratian 407 (in Britain)
Constantine III 407–11
Maximus 409–11
Jovinus 411–12
Constantius III (Flavius Constantius 421)
John (Johannes) 423–5
Valentinian III 425–55
Petronius Maximus 455
Avitus 455–6
Majorian 457–61
Libius Severus 461–5
Anthemius 467–74
Olybrius 472
Glycerius 472–80
Julius Nepos 473–80
Romulus (Augustulus) 475–6, etc.
Eastern emperors
Arcadius 395–408
Theodosius II 408–50
Marcian 450–7
Leo 457–74
Leo II 474
Zeno 474–91
Anastasius 491–518
House of Justin
Justin I 518–27
Justinian 527–65
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