Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of China (146 page)

32.
DXPNP-2
, May 12, 1977.

33.
Ibid.

34.
DXPJW
, 3:53–87.

35.
DXPNP-2
, May 24, 1977;
SWDXP-2
, pp. 53–54.

36.
Deng Liqun,
Shierge chunqiu, 1975–1987: Deng Liqun zishu
(Twelve Springs and Autumns, 1975–1987: Deng Liqun's Autobiography) (Hong Kong: Bozhi chubanshe, 2006), pp. 86–96.

37.
DXPNP-2
, July 16–21, 1977; Cheng Zhongyuan, Wang Yuxiang, and Li Zhenghua,
1976–1981 nian de Zhongguo
, p. 47.

38.
Cheng Zhongyuan, Wang Yuxiang, and Li Zhenghua,
1976–1981 nian de Zhongguo
, pp. 47–48;
DXPNP-2
, July 16–21, 1977;
SWDXP-2
, pp. 55–60.

39.
Cheng Zhongyuan, Wang Yuxiang, and Li Zhenghua,
1976–1981 nian de Zhongguo
, pp. 47–48;
DXPNP-2
, July 16–21, 1977.

40.
DXPNP-2
, July 30, 1977; communication from someone present, n.d.

41.
Shen Baoxiang,
Zhenli biaozhun wenti taolun shimo
, p. 10.

42.
“Closing Address at the 11th National Congress of the Communist Party of China,” in
The Eleventh National Congress of the Communist Party of China
(Peking: Foreign Languages Press, 1977), pp. 189–195.

43.
DXPNP-2
, July 23, 1977.

44.
SWDXP-2
, p. 81.

45.
DXPNP-2
, October 10, 1977.

46.
SWDXP-2
, p. 61.

47.
Ibid., p. 54;
DXPNP-2
, May 24, 1977.

48.
DXPNP-2
, July 23, 1977.

49.
Ji Weiqing, “Jiaoyu zhanxian tuifan ‘sirenbang’ liange guji qianhou” (Two Ideas on the Educational Front before and after the Overthrow of the “Gang of Four”),
Yanhuang chunqiu
, no. 5 (2003): 40–42. For an overview of his 1977 efforts to promote education, see Xia Xingzhen, “Deng Xiaoping yu jiaoyu zhanxian de boluan fanzheng” (Bringing Order out of Chaos on the Educational Front),
Dangdai Zhongguo shi yanjiu
, no. 4 (2004): 50–58.

50.
SWDXP-2
, p. 84.

51.
DXPNP-2
, July 27, 1977.

52.
Ibid., August 1, 1977.

53.
Ibid., July 29, 1977.

54.
Ibid., August 4, 1977. See also his speech on August 9, 1977; the English version is in
SWDXP-2
, pp. 61–71.

55.
SWDXP-2
, p. 81.

56.
Ibid., pp. 81–82.

57.
Cheng Zhongyuan, Wang Yuxiang, and Li Zhenghua,
1976–1981 nian de Zhongguo
, pp. 55–56; “Di sanji po bing” (Part 3: Breaking the Ice), in Zhongyang wenxian yanjiushi, Hunan shengwei, and Hunan dianshi tai (Hunan Television, Hunan Provincial Committee, and Central Chinese Communist Party Literature Research Office),
Daxing dianshipian “Deng Xiaoping shi zhang”
(Large-scale Television Series “Deng Xiaoping in Ten Parts”) (Hunan Provincial Television, 2004).

58.
SWDXP-2
, p. 81.

59.
“Di sanji po bing.”

60.
Cheng Zhongyuan, Wang Yuxiang, and Li Zhenghua,
1976–1981 nian de Zhongguo
, pp. 56–77.

61.
Ibid., p. 57.

62.
This follows the social patterns in Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, and other East Asian countries, where examinations played a similar role. See, for example, Ezra F. Vogel,
Japan's New Middle Class: The Salary Man and His Family in a Tokyo Suburb
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1963), pp. 40–67; Thomas P. Rohlen,
Japan's High Schools
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983); Denise Potrzeba Lett,
In Pursuit of Status: The Making of South Korea's “New” Urban Middle Class
(Cambridge, Mass.: Asia Center, Harvard University, 1998).

63.
SWDXP-2
, pp. 64–65.

64.
DXPNP-2
, September 19, 1977, p. 204.

65.
Much of Deng's thinking is spelled out in his August 8, 1977 speech on science and education; see
SWDXP-2
, pp. 61–71.

66.
LZQ
, pp. 223–230.

67.
SWDXP-2
, pp. 98–111.

68.
DXPNP-2
, July 23, 1977.

69.
For an overview of the Central Party School and other party schools, see David Shambaugh, “Training China's Political Elite,”
The China Quarterly
, no. 196 (December 2008): 827–844.

70.
Interview with Sun Changjiang, August 2006. See also Ma Licheng and Ling Zhijun,
Jiaofeng: Dangdai Zhongguo sanci sixiang jiefang shilu
(Crossing Swords: A Record of Three Emancipations of the Mind in Contemporary China) (Beijing: Jinri Zhongguo chubanshe, 1998), pp. 49–61.

71.
The literal translation for
shijian shi jianyan de weiyi biaozhun
is “experience is the sole criterion for testing truth.”

72.
Interview with Sun Changjiang, August 2006; Shen Baoxiang,
Zhenli biaozhun wenti taolun shimo;
Michael Schoenhals, “The 1978 Truth Criterion Controversy,”
The China Quarterly
, no. 126 (June 1991): 243–268.

73.
Shen Baoxiang,
Zhenli biaozhun wenti taolun shimo
, pp. 107–108; Party History Research Center, comp.,
History of the Chinese Communist Party: A Chronology of Events, 1919–1990
(Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1991), May 11, 1978.

74.
Schoenhals, “The 1978 Truth Criterion Controversy,” 252–260; Shen Baoxiang,
Zhenli biaozhun wenti taolun shimo.

75.
Shen Baoxiang,
Zhenli biaozhun wenti taolun shimo
, p. 122.

76.
Ibid., pp. 127–129;
DXPNP-2
, July 22, 1978.

77.
Ma Licheng and Ling Zhijun,
Jiaofeng
, p. 41.

7. Three Turning Points

1.
Paul A. Cohen,
Between Tradition and Modernity: Wang T'ao and Reform in Late Ch'ing China
(Cambridge: Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University, 1987).

2.
“Li Xiannian zhuan” bianxiezu (Editorial Group for the Biography of Li Xiannian), ed.,
Li Xiannian zhuan: 1949–1992
(A Biography of Li Xiannian: 1949–1992), 2 vols. (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 2009), 2:1049; Nina P. Halpern, “Learning from Abroad: Chinese Views of the East European Economic Experience, January 1977–June 1981,”
Modern China
11, no. 1 (January 1985): 77–109.

3.
Deng Xiaoping,
South China Elites Weekly
, August 17, 2004, quoted in Edwin C. Lim, “Xuyan: Zhongguo gaige kaifang guochengzhong de duiwai sixiang kaifang” (Preface: Thoughts on Opening to the Outside during the Process of China's Reform and Opening), in Wu Jinglian, ed.,
Zhongguo jingji 50 ren kan sanshi nian: Huigu yu fenxi
(Fifty Chinese Economists Look at the Thirty Years: Reflections and Analysis) (Beijing: Zhongguo jingji chubanshe, 2008).

4.
Li Xiangqian and Han Gang, “Xin faxian Deng Xiaoping yu Hu Yaobang deng sanci tanhua jilu” (Newly Discovered Record of Three of Deng Xiaoping's Talks with Hu Yaobang and Others),
Bainianchao
, no. 3 (1999): 4–11, reprinted in Xie Chuntao, ed.,
Deng Xiaoping xiezhen
(A Portrait of Deng Xiaoping) (Shanghai: Shanghai cishu chubanshe, 2005), p. 192.

5.
DXPSTW
, pp. 55–56.

6.
See Jinglian Wu,
Understanding and Interpreting Chinese Economic Reform
(Mason, Ohio: Thomson/South-Western, 2005), pp. 17–30, for a Chinese economist's view of the Eastern European reforms.

7.
Xinhua General Overseas News Service, March 9 to April 6, 1978.

8.
Gu Mu, “Xiaoping tongzhi lingdao women zhua duiwai kaifang” (Comrade Xiaoping Led Us to Grasp Reform and Opening), in Zhonggong zhongyang wen
xian yanjiushi (Central Chinese Communist Party Literature Research Office), ed.,
Huiyi Deng Xiaoping
(Remembering Deng Xiaoping), 3 vols. (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 1998), 1:155–156; see also Gu Mu, “Xiaoping lingdao women zhua kaifang” (Xiaoping Led Us to Grasp Opening),
Bainianchao
, no. 1 (1998): 4–11, reprinted in Yang Tianshi, ed.,
Deng Xiaoping xiezhen
(A Portrait of Deng Xiaoping) (Shanghai: Shanghai cishu chubanshe, 2005), pp. 203–204.

9.
Zhang Gensheng, “Ting Gu Mu tan qinli de jijian dashi” (Listening to Gu Mu Speak about Some of the Big Events That He Personally Experienced),
Yanhuang chunqiu
, no. 1 (2004): 3–5.

10.
Xu Ai, “Bu kan bu zhidao: Fang yuan guojia qinggongbu buzhang Yang Bo” (Don't See, Don't Know: An Interview with Yang Bo, the Former Minister of the Ministry of Light Industry), in Song Xiaoming and Liu An, eds.,
Zhuixun, 1978: Zhongguo gaige kaifang jiyuan fangtanlu
(Tracking Down 1978: A Record of Interviews on the Beginning of China's Reform and Opening) (Fuzhou: Fujian jiaoyu chubanshe, 1998), p. 539.

11.
Xinhua General Overseas News Service, May 2 to June 7, 1978.

12.
Xu Ai, “Bu kan bu zhidao,” p. 540.

13.
“Li Xiannian zhuan” bianxiezu,
Li Xiannian zhuan
, 2:1050–1054.

14.
Gu Mu, “Xiaoping lingdao women zhua kaifang,” pp. 203–204.

15.
Xinhua General Overseas News Service, May 2 to June 7, 1978.

16.
Cheng Zhongyuan, Wang Yuxiang, and Li Zhenghua,
1976–1981 nian de Zhongguo
(China from 1976 to 1981) (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 2008), pp. 263–266.

17.
Cui Ronghui, “Gaige kaifang, xianxing yi bu: Fang yuan Guangdong sheng shengwei shuji Wang Quanguo,” in Song Xiaoming and Liu An,
Zhuixun, 1978: Zhongguo gaige kaifang jiyuan fangtanlu
, p. 558.

18.
Xu Ai, “Bu kan bu zhidao,” p. 541.

19.
Ibid., p. 541; Cui Ronghui, “Gaige kaifang, xianxing yi bu,” p. 558.

20.
Cui Ronghui, “Gaige kaifang, xianxing yi bu,” p. 559.

21.
Gu Mu, “Xiaoping tongzhi lingdao women zhua duiwai kaifang,” p. 156.

22.
Zhang Gensheng, “Ting Gu Mu tan qinli de jijian dashi,” 3.

23.
Cheng Zhongyuan, Wang Yuxiang, and Li Zhenghua,
1976–1981 nian de Zhongguo
, p. 70; Xiao Donglian, “1979 nian guomin jingji tiaozheng fangzhen de tichu yu zhenglun: Da zhuanzhe jishi zhiyi” (The Proposal and Debate over the 1979 Economic Readjustment Policy: The First Big Turning Point),
Dangshi bolan
, no. 10 (2004): 4–10.

24.
Xiao Donglian, “1979 nian guomin jingji tiaozheng fangzhen de tichu yu zhenglun.”

25.
Gu Mu, “Xiaoping tongzhi lingdao women zhua duiwai kaifang,” pp. 156–157.

26.
DXPNP-2
, September 20, 1978.

27.
Xiao Donglian, “1978–1984 nian Zhongguo jingji tizhi gaige silu de yanjin: Juece yu shishi” (The Process of Conceptualizing Thinking on China's Economic Restructuring from 1978 to 1984: Decision-making and Implementation),
Dangdai Zhongguo shi yanjiu
, no. 9 (2004): 59–70;
DXPSTW
, pp. 53–61.

28.
DXPNP-2
, September 20, 1978.

29.
Chen Yun,
Chen Yun wenxuan
(Selected Works of Chen Yun), 3 vols., 2d ed. (Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, 1995), 3:235.

30.
Ibid., 3:252.

31.
Su Tairen, ed.,
Deng Xiaoping shengping quan jilu: Yige weiren he tade yige shiji
(The Entire Record of Deng Xiaoping's Life: A Great Man and His Century), 2 vols. (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 2004), 2:625.