From the Gracchi to Nero: A History of Rome from 133 B.C. to A.D. 68 (71 page)
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Authors: H. H. Scullard
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CHAPTER XVI
1 DOMUS AUREA. See ch. XIV, n. 22. [p. 293]
2 ROMAN PAINTING. See A. Maiuri,
Roman Painting
(1953). [p. 294]
3 LE GRAND CAMÉE DE FRANCE. On the interpretation see J. P. V. D. Balsdon,
JRS
, 1936, 252; A. Piganiol,
Histoire de Rome
(1946), 263. [p. 294]
4 THE ARA PACIS. See J. M. C. Toynbee, ‘The Ara Pacis reconsidered’,
Proc. Br. Acad.
, xxxix (1953), 67 ff. S. Weinstock (
JRS
, 1960, 44 ff.) has made a bold attempt to challenge the identification of the restored monument with the Ara Pacis. But see J. M. C. Toynbee,
JRS
, 1961, 153 ff. [p. 295]
5 POST-AUGUSTAN LITERATURE. H. E. Butler,
Post-Augustan Poetry
(1909); J. Wight Duff,
A Literary History of Rome in the Silver Age
(1927). On the literary chronology of the Neronian age see A. Momigliano (
Cl. Qu.
, 1944, 96 ff. =
Secondo Contributo
, 454 ff.). [p. 295]
6 DECLAMATION. See S. F. Bonner,
Roman Declamation in the late Republic and Early Empire
(1949), an interesting book which emphasizes the acquaintance of many of the declaimers with Roman law. Cf. A.D. Leeman,
Orationis Ratio
(Amsterdam, 1963). On the
suasoriae
of the elder Seneca (see p. 298 above) cf. L. A. Sussman,
The Elder Seneca
(1978). J. Fairweather,
Seneca the Elder
(1981). [p. 296]
7 SENECA. For a consideration of some recent work on Seneca see A. Garzetti,
From Tiberius to the Antonines
(1974), 606 ff.; for work on the
Apocolocyntosis
done 1922–58 see M. Coffey,
Lustrum
, 1961, 239 ff.; for work on Seneca’s prose works done 1940–57 see L. Motto,
Cl. W.
, 1960. 13 ff., 37 ff., 111 ff. See also some observations by C. G. Starr,
Civilization and the Caesars
(1954), 222 ff. (where, however, the
Octavia
is attributed to Seneca). On Seneca and Christianity see A. Momigliano,
Contributo alla storia degli studi classici
(1955), 13 ff. See also M. T. Griffin,
Seneca: a Philosopher in Politics
(1976). [p. 299]
7a LUCAN. See A. M. Ahl,
Lucan: an Introduction
(1976). On Lucan and Nero see G. K. Gresseth,
Cl. Ph.
, 1957, 24 ff. [p. 299]
7b CALPURNIUS SICULUS. Though widely assigned to Nero’s reign, Calpurnius’ lifetime has sometimes been set much later, e.g. recently in the early third century under Severus Alexander by E. Champlin,
JRS
, 1978, 95 ff., but for the Neronian date see G. B. Townend,
JRS
, 1980, 166 ff. and R. Mayer,
id.
, 175 ff. [p. 300]
8 AUFIDIUS BASSUS. See R. Syme,
Tacitus
(1958), 697 ff. [p. 300]
9 MEDICINE. See in general J. Scarborough,
Roman Medicine
(1969). [p. 301]
10 PHILOSOPHIC OPPOSITION. In a wide-ranging survey entitled
Enemies of the Roman Order
(1967) R. MacMullen examines elements in Roman society, including many philosophers, who opposed the regime. Here chs. I and II are particularly relevant. On Musonius see M. P. Charlesworth’s interesting essay in
Five Men
(1936), 33 ff.; C. F.
Lutz,
Yale Class. Stud.
, 1947, 3 ff. On the influence of Stoicism on the Principate in general see P. A. Brunt,
Papers Brit. Sch. Rome
, 1975, 7 ff. [p. 303]
11 ASTROLOGY. See F. H. Cramer,
Astrology in Roman Law and Politics
(1954), 92–131 for Thrasyllus and Balbillus. See also MacMullen,
op. cit.
, above, chs. III and IV. [p. 305]
12 THE PORTA MAGGIORE BASILICA. See J. Carcopino,
La Basilique pythagoricienne de la Porte Majeure
(1927); his belief in its connexion with Neopythagoreanism is probable, but has not been proved. [p. 305]
13 VILLA OF THE MYSTERIES. See J. Toynbee,
JRS
, 1929, 67 ff.; K. Lehmann,
JRS
, 1962, 62 ff. [p. 305]
14 ORIENTAL CULTS. See F. Cumont,
Les religions orientales dans le paganisme romain
(4th ed., 1929, Eng. trans. of 2nd ed. (1909), published in 1911 and reprinted 1956:
Oriental Religions in Roman Paganism
); J. Toutain,
Les cultes païens dans l’empire romain
(1907); W. R. Halliday,
The Pagan Background of Early Christianity
(1925); M. Rostovtzeff,
Mystic Italy
(1927); A. D. Nock,
Conversion
(1933); A. J. Festugière-Fabre,
Le monde greco-romain au temps de Notre Seigneur
, 2 vols. (1944 f.); J. Ferguson,
The Religions of the Roman Empire
(1970): R. E. Witt,
Isis in the Graeco-Roman World
(1971). On Cybele, M.J. Vermaseren,
Cybele and Attis
(1977). [p. 305]
15 JEWS AND JUDAISM. See W. O. E. Oesterly,
A History of Israel
, II (1932), G. F. Moore,
Judaism in the First Centuries of the Christian Era
, 2 vols. (1927), F. J. Foakes Jackson and Kirsopp Lake,
The Beginnings of Christianity
, I (1920), 1–168, E. Schürer,
The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ
(
175 BC
–
A.D
.
135
), revised by G. Vermes and F. Millar, I (1973), ii (1979). [p. 306]
16 DEAD SEA SCROLLS AND CHRISTIANITY. On the lack of direct connexion see the brief but authoritative statement by H.H. Rowley,
The Dead Sea Scrolls and the New Testament
(1957);
The Teacher of Righteousness
(1957); also
The Scrolls and the New Testament
, edited by K. Stendahl (1958). M. Black,
The Scrolls and Christian Origins
(1961). On the scrolls, see further ch. XIV, n. 32. See now G. Vermes,
The Dead Sea Scrolls in English
(1962). [p. 307]
17 JESUS OF NAZARETH. In view of the immensity of the literature only a few books can be mentioned: A. Schweitzer,
Quest of the Historical Jesus
(1911); V. Taylor,
The Formation of the Gospel Tradition
(1933),
The Life and Ministry of Jesus
(1954); C. H. Dodd,
The Founder of Christianity
(1971); F. C. Burkitt,
Jesus Christ
(1932); T. W. Manson,
Jesus the Messiah
(1943); G. D. Kilpatrick,
The Trial of Jesus
(1953). See also ‘The Present Position in the Controversy concerning the Problem of the Historical Jesus’, by J. Jeremias,
The Expository Times
, 1958, 333 ff. For the general background see F. F. Bruce,
New Testament History
(1969). Cf. also M. Grant,
Jesus
(1977), and
Jesus and the Politics of his Day
edited by E. Bammel and C. F. D. Moule (forthcoming). On the authenticity and importance of the references to Jesus in Josephus see P. Winter in E. Schürer,
History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ
, edited by G. Vermes and F. Millar (1973), 428 ff. [p. 307]
18 CHRONOLOGY OF THE LIFE OF JESUS. The sixth-century Christian monk, Dionysius Exiguus, who established the Christian era by equating the Roman year 753 A.U.C. with 1 B.C. and 754 A.U.C. with A.D. 1, thereby placed the birth of Jesus too late, since he was certainly born during the reign of Herod the Great who died in 4 B.C.; the date of the nativity may be as early as 7 B.C. (see above ch. xii, n. 10). The length of the Ministry of Jesus was often believed in the second and third centuries to have lasted only one year, but the tradition of the three Synoptic Gospels (more probably) suggests two years, while the Gospel according to St. John has (wrongly?) been thought to imply three years. The critical date of the Crucifixion is uncertain: it was during the procuratorship of Pilate (A.D. 26–36) and the High-priesthood of Caiaphas (18–36),
probably on a Friday and on the 14th day of the Jewish lunar month Nisan. Astronomical calculations as to when 14th Nisan fell on a Friday have resulted in little firm agreement, but the years A.D. 29, 30 or 33 are the most probable. For a discussion of the evidence for the chronology of the life of Jesus (and of the New Testament) see G. Ogg,
Peake’s Commentary on the Bible
, edited by M. Black and H. H. Rowley (1962), 728 ff. [p. 307]
19 TIBERIUS AND THE CRUCIFIXION. The story that Pilate reported the death of Jesus to Tiberius, which is recorded by Tertullian (
Apolog
. 21, 24), and that Tiberius reported to the Senate ‘veritatem ipsius divinitatis’ (
ibid.
5, 2), is generally rejected as deriving from the apocryphal
Acta Pilati
or other such works. Recent attempts to establish its truth have not been very happy: see S. Mazzarino,
Trattato di storia Romana
, II (1956), 165 f., who attributes its creation to the time of Domitian rather than to the second century A.D. For further literature and complete rejection of the story see T. D. Barnes,
JRS
, 1968, 32–3. A. Frova (
Rendiconti dell’ Ist. Lombardo
(vol.) 95, 1961, 419 ff.) has published the new inscription of Pontius Pilate from Caesarea: ‘…]s Tiberievm [Pon]tivs Pilatvs [Praef]ectvs Ivdaeae.’ This stone must come from a building in honour of Tiberius (a Tiberieum) dedicated by Pilate. It is noteworthy both as an epigraphic record of Pilate and also as apparently naming him
praefectus
, not
procurator
. See ch. XI, n. 27 above. [p. 308]
20 THE EARLY CHURCH. On the early Church see H. Lietzman,
History of the Early Church
(Engl. trans. 1937); J. Lebreton and J. Zeiller,
The History of the Primitive Church
, I (Engl. trans. 1942); Foakes Jackson and K. Lake,
op. cit.
, n. 15; P. Carrington,
The Early Christian Church
, I (1957), and interesting book but not adequately documented; H. Chadwick,
The Early Church
(1967), ch. 1; D. R. Griffiths,
The New Testament and the Roman State
(1970), an introductory sketch. [p. 308]
21 CHRISTIANI. On the name see H.B. Mattingly (
Journ. Theol. Studies
, 1958, 26 ff.), who compares it with ‘Augustiani’. [p. 309]
22 ST. PAUL. See W. M. Ramsay,
St Paul the Traveller and Roman Citizen
(1897); A. Deissmann,
St. Paul
(1912). For a brief commentary on
Acts
see A. W. F. Blunt, volume in
The Clarendon Bible
(1923); also H. J. Cadbury,
The Book of Acts in History
(1955); in general,
Peake’s Commentary on the Bible
, edited by M. Black and H. H. Rowley (1962). The chronology of Paul’s life contains difficulties. His conversion to Christianity may have been five to ten years after the Crucifixion; his first missionary journey was made
c.
57, he arrived in Rome
c.
59–62, and his death occurred possibly in 64. His Epistles and the account of his exciting life recorded in the
Acts
throw much light on the Roman world, and on the whole the Roman authorities are seen in a favourable light, at any rate in their dealings with one who could claim
civis Romanus sum
. See also A. N. Sherwin-White,
Roman Society and Roman Law in the New Testament
(1963) and M. Grant,
St. Paul
(1976). [p. 309]
The following is a selection of a few books (in English) which cover all or considerable parts of the political history of Rome from the Gracchi to Nero. Others, both detailed studies and works dealing more precisely with social, economic and cultural aspects, are mentioned in the Notes.
The Cambridge Ancient History
, ed. S. A. Cook, F. E. Adcock and M. P. Charlesworth: ix,
The Roman Republic, 133–44 B.C
. (1932); x,
The Augustan Empire 44 B.C.–A.D
.
70
(1934)
Methuen’s History of the Greek and Roman World: F. B. Marsh,
History of the Roman World, 146–30 B.C
. (3rd ed. rev. by H. H. Scullard 1963) and E. T. Salmon,
A History of the Roman World, 30 B.C.–A.D
.
138
(5th. ed. 1966)
M. Cary and H. H. Scullard,
A History of Rome
(3rd ed. 1975).
T. Mommsen,
The History of Rome
(Engl. trans. 1911); deals with the Roman Republic and, though old, is a classic.
A. H. J. Greenidge,
A History of Rome, 133–104 B.C.
(1904)
D. Stockton,
The Gracchi
(1979)
E. S. Gruen,
Roman Politics and the Criminal Courts, 149–78 B.C
. (1968)
T. Rice Holmes,
The Roman Republic
, 3 vols (1923), covering 78–44 B.C.
E. S. Gruen,
The Last Generation of the Roman Republic
(1974), covering 78–49 B.C.
R. Seager,
Pompey
(1979)
E. Rawson,
Cicero
(1975)
M. Gelzer,
Caesar, Politician and Statesman
(1968)
J. M. Carter,
The Battle of Actium
(1970); despite the title it deals with 44–31 B.C.
T. Rice Holmes,
The Architect of the Roman Empire
, 2 vols (1928 and 1931), deals with 44 B.C.–A.D. 14
A. Garzetti,
From Tiberius to the Antonines
(1974), a history of the Roman Empire a.d. 14–192
B. Levick,
Tiberius, the Politician
(1976)
V. M. Scramuzza,
The Emperor Claudius
(1940)
B. H. Warmington,
Nero, Reality and Legend
(1969)
Accius, L.
164
–5
Aemilianus, Scipio
3
,
10
–
12
,
19
–
21
,
25
–7,
38
,
40
,
163
,
167
Aeneid
(Virgil)
200
–1
Afer, Domitius
276
Africa
66
,
123
,
138
–9,
147
,
179
,
222
,
236
,
239
,
261
–3,
266
,
269
,
273
,
277
–8,
282
see also
Mauretania;
Numidia agrarian reform
37
,
50
,
54
,
92
,
96
,
98
see also
land reform
Agrippa, M. Vipsanius
134
,
137
–9,
144
–5,
177
,
180
–2,
193
–4,
208
–9,
213
–18,
276
,
286
Agrippina the elder
230
,
233
–4,
237
Agrippina the younger
240
,
244
,
255
–8
Alexander Helios
142
–3
Alexandria
91
,
118
,
127
,
141
–2,
212
,
229
–30,
241
–2,
249
,
280
see also
client-kings/kingdoms;
Italian
14
–
15
,
25
–7,
50
,
52
–5,
77
,
148
Ambiorix
112
animal entertainments
152
,
289
–91
Antiochus IV
250
–1
Antonius, M.
78
Antonius, M. (orator)
47
,
50
,
52
,
60
,
169
Antony, Marc
104
,
115
,
119
,
137
–9,
141
,
143
,
197
;
Battle of Actium
144
–5;
Battle of Philippi
134
–7;
in Gaul
133
–4;
rise of
131
–2
Apollodorus of Artemita
105
Archelaus
63
–4,
142
,
208
,
211
,
234
,
265
architecture
153
,
162
–3,
192
–3,
260
Aristobulus
87
–8
aristocracy
149
–50,
189
–90,
283
–6
Armenia
62
,
84
–8,
106
,
124
,
142
–3,
209
–10,
229
,
235
,
241
,
251
,
263
,
265
–6
see also
legions;
military conduct;
military dictatorship;
military officers;
military reforms;
influence in political life
43
,
51
,
134
;
Arretium
274
–5
see also
architecture
Artabanus III
235
Artaxes
209
artisan shop system
274
–6
Arverni
112
–13
Asculum
54
–7
Asia
25
,
33
,
58
,
61
–5,
78
,
82
–8,
96
–8,
103
,
132
–6,
151
,
155
,
188
,
208
,
236
Asia Minor
61
–4,
84
–5,
118
–19,
140
,
158
,
208
–10,
222
,
250
,
277
,
280
Atta, T. Quinctius
164
Atticus, T. Pomponius
132
,
151
,
168
Augustan principate:
consolidation
181
–3;
establishment of
176
–8;
first settlement
178
–80;
frontiers
205
–19;
last 25 years of
183
–5;
magistrates and officials
189
–92;
provinces
219
–23;
public works in Rome and Italy
192
–5;
relations with Senate
185
–9;
religious reforms
197
–9;
second settlement
180
–1;
social reforms
195
–7;
writings
193
Augustiani
259
–60
St Augustine
174
Augustus
153
,
175
,
195
,
227
,
230
,
244
,
252
,
276
,
279
,
284
,
287
–9
see also
Augustan principate;
Octavian;
appraisal
223
–5;
honours and offices
177
–9,
181
–2,
184
;
Autronius Paetus, P.
90
–1
Averni
34
Balbillus, Ti. Claudius
262
,
304
Balbus, Cornelius
97
,
121
,
213
,
284
Bassus, Aufidius
300
–1
Bibulus, M. Calpurnius
98
–9,
102
,
116
–17
Bithynia
62
–3,
77
,
83
,
85
–6,
89
,
155
,
165
,
208
Blaesus, Junius
236
Boudicca
264
–5
brick industry
275
–6
Britain
108
,
214
,
240
–1,
245
,
249
–51,
263
–5,
275
,
277
,
282
;
Caesar in
111
–12;
Claudian conquest
252
–5
Brutus, M. Iunius
73
–4,
129
,
131
–4,
136
–7,
140
–1,
149
–50,
157
,
173
,
201
businessmen
8
,
33
,
39
,
63
,
65
,
147
–8,
151
,
280
–1
see also
merchants
Caepio, Q. Servilius
44
–6,
54
,
56
Caesar
71
,
78
,
82
–3,
89
,
151
,
153
,
158
,
168
,
185
–6,
244
,
248
,
284
,
287
;
appraisal
129
–30;
autocracy
125
–30;
in Britain
111
–12;
Civil War
114
–21;
and Crassus
90
–3;
death of
128
–9;
first consulship
97
–9;
in Germany
111
–12;
policy and administration
124
–5;
reform and reconstruction
121
–3;
will and funeral
132
–3;
calendar reform
122
Caligula
see
Gaius (Caligula)
Calpurnius Siculus
257
Campania
55
,
57
,
61
,
65
,
79
,
148
,
164
,
272
,
275
,
282
Cappadocia
62
–3,
84
,
86
,
88
,
142
,
208
,
229
,
234
,
251
,
265
Cassius Longinus, C.
106
,
129
,
131
–4,
136
–7,
140
–1,
157
Cato, M. Porcius the elder
17
,
147
,
166
,
173