Hannibal Enemy of Rome (72 page)
Read Hannibal Enemy of Rome Online
Authors: Ben Kane
The dramatic confrontation between the Roman embassy and the Carthaginian Council of Elders apparently took place as I’ve portrayed it. So too did the chance encounter between a unit of Roman cavalry and one of Numidians in the countryside above Massilia. I altered events, however, to take Publius back to Rome before he travelled to Cisalpine Gaul to face the invaders. Minucius Flaccus is a fictitious character, but Minucius Rufus, his brother, is not.
Most controversy over Hannibal’s journey concerns which pass his host took through the Alps. Having no wish to enter into such debates, I merely used the descriptions which Polybius and Livy gave us to set the scene. I truly hope that I managed to convey some of the terror and elation that would have filled the hearts of those hardy souls who followed Hannibal up and over the Alps’ lofty peaks. The speech he gave to his troops before they started climbing was very similar to the one I described. Although not every source mentions the scene with the boiling wine and the boulder, I felt that I had to include it.
The term ‘Italy’ was in use in the third century
BC
as a geographical expression; it encompassed the entire peninsula south of Liguria and Cisalpine Gaul. The term did not become a political one until Polybius’ time (mid second century
BC
). I decided to use it anyway. It simplified matters, and avoided constant reference to the different parts of the Republic: Rome, Campania, Latium, Lucania, etc.
My description of the calf born with its internal organs on the outside is not a figment of my imagination - I have performed two caesarean sections on cows to deliver the so-called
schistosomus reflexus
. They were without doubt two of the most revolting things I’ve ever set eyes upon. On one occasion, the unfortunate calf was still alive. Although this happened only fifteen years ago, the farmer’s superstition was obvious and he became extremely agitated until I had euthanased it. We can only imagine what kind of reaction such a creature might have provoked in ancient times.
The duels between the Carthaginian prisoners, and the rewards on offer to those who survived, are described in the ancient texts. So too is the fate of Taurasia. When it came to making a point, Hannibal was as ruthless as the next general. The Roman losses in the Ticinus skirmish were severe and the savage night attack by some of their so-called Gaulish allies only served as another knock to Publius’ confidence. I invented the Carthaginian ambush at the River Trebia, but the details of the remarkable battle that unfolded afterwards are as exact as I could make them. Hannibal’s victory on that bitter winter’s day proved beyond doubt that his crossing of the Alps was no fluke. As the Romans would repeatedly discover in the months that followed, he was a real force to be reckoned with.
A bibliography of the textbooks I used while writing
Hannibal: Enemy of Rome
would run to several pages, so I will mention only the
most important, in alphabetical order by author:
The Punic Wars
by Nigel Bagnall,
The Punic Wars
by Brian Caven,
Greece and Rome at War
by Peter Connolly,
Hannibal
by Theodore A. Dodge,
The Fall of Carthage
by Adrian Goldsworthy,
Armies of the Macedonian and Punic Wars
by Duncan Head,
Hannibal’s War
by J. F. Lazenby,
Carthage Must Be Destroyed
by Richard Miles,
The Life and Death of Carthage
by G. C. & C. Picard,
Daily Life in Carthage (at the Time of Hannibal)
by G. C. Picard,
Roman Politics 220-150
BC
by H. H. Scullard,
Carthage and the Carthaginians
by Reginald B. Smith and
Warfare in the Classical World
by John Warry. I’m grateful to Osprey Publishing for numerous excellent volumes, to Oxford University Press for the outstanding
Oxford Classical Dictionary
, and to Alberto Perez and Paul McDonnell-Staff for their superb article in Volume III, Issue 4 of
Ancient Warfare
magazine. Thanks, as always, to the members of
www.romanarmy.com
, whose rapid answers to my odd questions are so often of great use. I also have to mention, and thank, the three Australian brothers Wood: Danny, Ben and Sam. Their excellent mini travel series,
On Hannibal’s Trail
, couldn’t have screened on BBC4 at a better time than it did, and was a great help to me when writing the chapter on crossing the Alps.
I owe gratitude too to a legion of people at my wonderful publishers, Random House. There’s Rosie de Courcy, my indefatigable and endlessly encouraging editor; Nicola Taplin, my tremendous managing editor; Kate Elton, who was generous enough to welcome me into the big, brave world of Arrow Books; Rob Waddington, who ensures that my novels reach every possible outlet in the land; Adam Humphrey, who organises fiendishly clever and successful marketing; Richard Ogle, who, with the illustrator Steve Stone, designs my amazing new jackets; Ruth Waldram, who secures me all kinds of great publicity; Monique Corless, who persuades so many foreign editors to buy my books; David Parrish, who makes sure that bookshops abroad do so too. Thank you all so much. Your hard work on my behalf is very much appreciated.
So many other people must be named: Charlie Viney, my agent, deserves a big mention. Without him, I’d still be working as a vet, and plugging away at my first Roman novel. Thanks, Charlie! I’m very grateful to Richenda Todd, my copy editor, who provides highly incisive input on my manuscripts; Claire Wheller, my outstanding physio, who stops my body from falling to bits after spending too long at my PC; Arthur O’Connor,
the most argumentative man in Offaly (if not Ireland), who also supplies excellent criticism and improvements to my stories. Last, but most definitely not least, Sair, my wife, and Ferdia and Pippa, my children, ground me and provide me with so much love and joy. Thank you. My life is so much richer for having you three in it.
acetum
: vinegar, the most common disinfectant used by the Romans. Vinegar is excellent at killing bacteria, and its widespread use in Western medicine continued until late in the nineteenth century.Aesculapius: son of Apollo, the god of health and the protector of doctors. Revered by the Carthaginians as well as the Romans.
Agora: we have no idea what Carthaginians called the central meeting area in their city. I have used the Greek term to differentiate it from the main Forum in Rome. Without doubt, the Agora would have been the most important meeting place in Carthage.
Alps: In Latin, these mountains are called
Alpes
. Not used in the novel (unlike the Latin names for other geographical features) as it looks ‘strange’ to modern eyes.Assembly of the People: the public debating group to which all Carthaginian male citizens belonged. Its main power was that of electing the suffetes once a year.
Astarte: a Carthaginian goddess whose origins lie in the East. She may have represented marriage, and was perhaps seen as the protector of cities and different social groups.
atrium
: the large chamber immediately beyond the entrance hall in a Roman house. Frequently built on a grand scale, this was the social and devotional centre of the home.Baal Hammon: the pre-eminent god at the time of the founding of Carthage. He was the protector of the city, the fertilising sun, the provider of wealth and the guarantor of success and happiness. The Tophet, or the sacred area where Baal Hammon was worshipped, is the site where the bones of children and babies have been found, giving rise to the controversial topic of child sacrifice. For those who are interested, there is an
excellent discussion on the issue in Richard Miles’ book,
Carthage Must Be Destroyed
. The term ‘Baal’ means ‘Master’ or ‘Lord’, and was used before the name of various gods.Baal Saphon: the Carthaginian god of war.
bireme: an ancient warship, which was perhaps invented by the Phoenicians. It had a square sail, two sets of oars on each side, and was used extensively by the Greeks and Romans.
caetrati
(sing.
caetratus
): light Iberian infantry. They wore short-sleeved white tunics with a crimson border at the neck, hem and sleeves. Their only protection was a helmet of sinew or bronze, and a round buckler of leather and wicker, or wood, called a
caetra
. They were armed with
falcata
swords and daggers. Some may have carried javelins.caligae
: heavy leather sandals worn by the Roman soldier. Sturdily constructed in three layers - a sole, insole and upper -
caligae
resembled an open-toed boot. The straps could be tightened to make them fit more closely. Dozens of metal studs on the sole gave the sandals good grip; these could also be replaced when necessary.carnyx
(pl.
carnyxes
): a bronze trumpet, which was held vertically and topped by a bell shaped in the form of an animal, usually a boar. Used by many Celtic peoples, it was ubiquitous in Gaul, and provided a fearsome sound alone or in unison with other instruments. It was often depicted on Roman coins, to denote victories over various tribes.Carthage: modern-day Tunis. It was reputedly founded in 814
BC
, although the earliest archaeological finds date from about sixty years later.cenaculae
(sing.
cenacula
): the miserable multi-storey flats in which Roman plebeians lived. Cramped, poorly lit, heated only by braziers, and often dangerously constructed, the
cenaculae
had no running water or sanitation. Access to the flats was via staircases built on the outside of the building.Choma: the manmade quadrilateral area which lay to the south/southeast of the main harbours in Carthage. It was probably constructed to serve as a place to unload ships, to store goods, and to act as a pier head protecting passing vessels from the worst of the wind.
Cisalpine Gaul: the northern area of modern-day Italy, comprising the Po plain and its mountain borders from the Alps to the Apennines. In the third century
BC
, it was not part of the Republic.consul: one of two annually elected chief magistrates, appointed by the people and ratified by the Senate. Effective rulers of Rome for twelve months, they were in charge of civil and military matters and led the Republic’s armies into war. Each could countermand the other and both were supposed to heed the wishes of the Senate. No man was supposed to serve as consul more than once.
Council of Elders: Carthaginian politics, with its numerous ruling bodies, is very confusing. The Council of Elders was one of the most important, however. Its members were some of the most prominent men in Carthage, and its areas of remit included the treasury and foreign affairs. Another ruling body was the Tribunal of One Hundred and Four. Composed of members of the elite aristocracy, it supervised the conduct of government officials and military leaders; it also acted as a type of higher constitutional court.
crucifixion: contrary to popular belief, the Romans did not invent this awful form of execution; in fact, the Carthaginians may well have done so. The practice is first recorded during the Punic Wars.
decurion: the cavalry officer in charge of ten men. In later times, the decurion commanded a
turma
, a unit of about thirty men.didrachm
: a silver coin, worth two drachmas, which was one of the main coins in third century
BC
Italy. Strangely, the Romans did not make coins of their own design until later on. The
denarius
, which was to become the main coin of the Republic, was not introduced until around 211
BC
.Eshmoun: the Carthaginian god of health and well-being, whose temple was the largest in Carthage.
falaricae
(sing.
falarica
): a spear with a pine shaft and a long iron head, at the base of which a ball of pitch and tow was often tied. This created a lethal incendiary weapon, used to great effect by the Saguntines.falcata
sword: a lethal, slightly curved weapon with a sharp point used by light Iberian infantry. It was single-edged for the first half to two-thirds of its blade, but the remainder was double-edged. The hilt curved protectively around the hand and back towards the blade; it was often made in the shape of a horse’s head. Apparently, the
caetrati
who used
falcata
swords were well able to fight legionaries.fasces: a bundle of rods bound together around an axe. The symbol of justice, it was carried by a lictor, a group of whom walked in front
of all senior magistrates. The fasces symbolised the right of the authorities to punish and execute lawbreakers.fides:
essentially, good faith. It was regarded as a major quality in Rome.fugitivarius
(pl.
fugitivarii
): slave-catchers, men who made a living from tracking down and capturing runaways. The punishment branding the letter ‘F’ (for
fugitivus
) on the forehead is documented; so is the wearing of permanent neck chains, which had directions on how to return the slave to their owner.Genua: modern-day Genoa.
gladius
(pl.
gladii
): little information remains about the ‘Spanish’ sword of the Republican army, the
gladius hispaniensis
, with its waisted blade. It is not clear when it was adopted by the Romans, but it was probably after encountering the weapon during the First Punic War, when it was used by Celtiberian troops. The shaped hilt was made of bone and protected by a pommel and guard of wood. The
gladius
was worn on the right, except by centurions and other senior officers, who wore it on the left. It was actually quite easy to draw with the right hand, and was probably positioned like this to avoid entanglement with the
scutum
while being unsheathed.gugga: in Plautus’ comedy,
Poenulus
, one of the Roman characters refers to a Carthaginian trader as a ‘gugga’. This insult can be translated as ‘little rat’.hastati
(sing.
hastatus
): experienced young soldiers who formed the first ranks in the Roman battle line in the third century
BC
. They were armed with mail or bronze breast and back plates, crested helmets, and
scuta
. They carried two
pila
, one light and one heavy, and a
gladius hispaniensis
.hora secunda
, the second hour;
hora quarta
, the fourth hour;
hora undecima
, the eleventh hour: Roman time was divided into two periods, that of daylight (twelve hours) and of night-time (eight watches). The first hour of the day,
hora prima
, started at sunrise.Iberia: the modern-day Iberian Peninsula, encompassing Spain and Portugal.
Iberus: the River Ebro.
Illyricum (or Illyria): the Roman name for the lands that lay across the Adriatic Sea from Italy: including parts of modern-day Slovenia, Serbia, Croatia, Bosnia and Montenegro.
intervallum
: the wide, flat area inside the walls of a Roman camp or fort. As well as serving to protect the barrack buildings from enemy missiles, it could when necessary allow the massing of troops before battle.kopis (
pl.
kopides)
: a Greek sword with a forward curving blade, not dissimilar to the
falcata
sword. It was normally carried in a leather-covered sheath and suspended from a baldric. Many ancient peoples used the
kopis
, from the Etruscans to the Oscans and Persians.lictor
(pl.
lictores
): a magistrates’ enforcer. Only strongly built citizens could apply for this job. Essentially, lictores were the bodyguards for the consuls, praetors and other senior Roman magistrates. Such officials were accompanied at all times in public by set numbers of lictores (the number depended on their rank). Each lictor carried a fasces. Other duties included the arresting and punishment of wrongdoers.Ligurians: natives of the coastal area that was bounded to the west by the River Rhone and to the east by the River Arno.
Lusitanians: tribesmen from the area of modern-day Portugal.
Massilia: the city of Marseille in modern-day France.
Melqart: a Carthaginian god associated with the sea, and with Hercules. He was also the god most favoured by the Barca family. Hannibal notably made a pilgrimage to Melqart’s shrine in southern Iberia before beginning his war on Rome.
mulsum
: a drink made by mixing four parts wine and one part honey. It was commonly drunk before meals and during the lighter courses.munus
(pl.
munera
): a gladiatorial combat, staged originally during celebrations honouring someone’s death.Padus: the River Po.
papaverum
: the drug morphine. Made from the flowers of the opium poppy, its use has been documented from at least 1000
BC
.peristyle: a colonnaded garden which lay to the rear of a Roman house. Often of great size, it was bordered by open-fronted seating areas, reception rooms and banqueting halls.
pilum
(pl.
pila
): the Roman javelin. It consisted of a wooden shaft approximately 1.2 m (4 ft) long, joined to a thin iron shank approximately 0.6 m (2 ft) long, and was topped by a small pyramidal point. The javelin was heavy and, when launched, all of its weight was concentrated behind the head, giving it tremendous penetrative force. It could strike through
a shield to injure the man carrying it, or lodge in the shield, making it impossible for the man to continue using it. The range of the
pilum
was about 30 m (100 ft), although the effective range was probably about half this distance.Pisae: modern-day Pisa.
Placentia: modern-day Piacenza.
praetor: one of four senior magistrates (in the years 228-198
BC
approximately) who administered justice in Rome, or in its overseas possessions such as Sardinia and Sicily. He could also hold military commands and initiate legislation. The main understudies to the consuls, the praetors convened the Senate in their absence.principes
(sing.
princeps
): these soldiers - described as family men in their prime - formed the second rank of the Roman battle line in the third century
BC
. They were similar to the
hastati
, and as such were armed and dressed in much the same manner.provocatio
: an appeal on behalf of the Roman people, made against the order of a magistrate.pteryges
: also spelt
pteruges
. This was a twin layer of stiffened linen strips that protected the waist and groin of the wearer. It either came attached to a cuirass of the same material, or as a detachable piece of equipment to be used below a bronze breastplate. Although
pteryges
were designed by the Greeks, many nations used them, including the Romans and Carthaginians.quinquereme: the principal Carthaginian fighting vessel in the third century
BC
. They were of similar size to triremes, but possessed many more rowers. Controversy over the exact number of oarsmen in these ships, and the positions they occupied, has gone on for decades. It is fairly well accepted nowadays, however, that the quinquereme had three sets of oars on each side. The vessel was rowed from three levels with two men on each oar of the upper banks, and one man per oar of the lower bank.