Hinduism: A Short History (24 page)

There are descriptions of Bhāgavata shrines of pre-Christian and early post-Christian times, but only a few numismatic representations of Vāsudeva-Viṣṇu are connected with the name of Viṣṇumitra (first century B.C.E.).
¹³⁹
Mathurā and its surroundings had been the home of Vāsudeva-Kṛṣṇa worship from very ancient times, as the Besnagar inscription testifies.
¹⁴⁰
At an early age votive columns in honor of Vāsudeva-Viṣṇu, Pradyumna, and Saṁkarṣaṇa were erected.
¹⁴¹
Quite early too is the representation of the
sudarśana-cakra
of Viṣṇu – in fact in several cases the presence of the
cakra
has been used to identify a figure as Viṣṇu.
¹⁴²
The wheel is an ancient solar symbol, and thus connects later Viṣṇu images with the Vedic Viṣṇu. The
Bṛhat-Saṃhitā
description of Viṣṇu images
¹⁴³
shows that at such an early date the representation of Viṣṇu had already been stereotyped: most of what is held as characteristic for Viṣṇu has been part of Viṣṇu images since then.
¹⁴⁴
It is worth mentioning that the text already describes varieties of two-, four-, and eight-armed Viṣṇu images. The
śrīvatsa
mark hints at a fusion of Laksmī and Viṣṇu cult; the attributes in his hands express his salvific activities.

The Viṣṇu images preserved are very numerous. There are various ways to classify them: according to the content of their representation they are divided into
para, vyūha
, and
vibhava
– the former ones are subdivided according to their positioning of the figure into
sthānaka
(standing),
āsana
(sitting), and
sāyana
(lying). Each of the twelve subgroups is again subdivided into
uttama
(highest),
madhyama
(middling), and
adhāma
(lowest) according to the number of figures that surround the main deity.
¹⁴⁵
A less popular classification divides the Viṣṇu images into
yoga, bhoga, vlra
, and
abhicārika.
¹⁴⁶

The
Bṛhat-Saṃhitā
description suits the
para-sthānaka
definition. There are two main varieties: Viṣṇu standing alone, and Viṣṇu accompanied by Śrī (sometimes also by Bhūmī). The attributes express salvific activities of Viṣṇu: he kills Madhu and Kaiṭabha with the
gadā
(club) and Rāhu with the
cakra
(discus); he protects the embryo of Pārikṣit by the arrow and he frightens his enemies by the sound of his bow; he scares away the demons by the sound of the
śaṅkha
(conch) and gives
mukti
through his
abhaya-mudrā
. In later Viṣṇu images, replacing one of the weapons (usually the sword), Viṣṇu holds in one of his hands a lotus – a symbol with a great variety of meanings
¹⁴⁷
associated with the highest God since very ancient times. It signifies purity and transcendent bliss: the lotus flower is pure and unstained even growing amidst muddy waters.

The
śayana-mūrti
is the most common Viṣṇu image in South India. Viṣṇu is represented as resting on Śeṣa, the world-snake, attended by Śrī and often also by Bhūmī, who is considered to be his second wife. He represents the highest bliss, the state of absorption of everything in him; through his
darśana
one obtains highest bliss: it is the representation of Viṣṇu in Vaikuṇṭha. The snake itself is a highly symbolic figure in Vaiṣṇavism: though it is the enemy of Garuḍa, it is also the symbol for eternal life and immortality, of secret power and mystery. The association of the serpent with water is also very meaningful: water is the primeval element, the source of everything. From Viṣṇu’s navel issues a lotus, on which Brahmā, the demiurge, is seated. Various figures are represented in the company of Viṣṇu; often they are only there to emphasize his importance.

We find the representation of Viṣṇu’s
vyūhas
in some four-faced, four-armed North Indian images. One of them shows a human, a lion, a boar, and a demon face. In the
Viṣṇu-dhrmottara
¹⁴⁸
we read that the human face is that of Vāsudeva typifying Viṣṇu’s
bala
the lion face is that of Saṁkarṣaṇa typifying
jñāna;
the boar face is that of Pradyumna typifying
aiśvarya;
the demon face is that of Aniruddha, typifying
śakti
.

Very frequent are representations of
vibhavas
, particularly of Rāma and Kṛṣṇa. The stereotyped
daśāvatāras
belong to the standard inventory of many Indian temples. Separate temples exist especially for
Varāha, Nṛsiṇha
, and
Vāmana avatāra
. Nonhuman
avatāras
are represented either theriomorphic or hybrid, i.e. a human body with an animal head.
Vāmana
is depicted both as dwarf and as
virāṭa
, the Viṣṇu
trivikrama
of the Vedas. The three Rāmas are always shown in human form with their distinguishing emblems: Paraśurāma with his battle ax, Daśarathi Rāma with bow and arrow, Balarāma with a ploughshare.

Kṛṣṇa is the most popular among the
avatāras
also as regards his images. As early as the second or third century C.E., a representation shows the child Kṛṣṇa, and fourth-century reliefs illustrate Kṛṣṇa lifting up Govardhāna mountain, Kṛṣṇa stealing butter, the child Kṛṣṇa subduing Kalīya-nāga. With the growth of the romantic element in Vaiṣṇavism, the representations of Kṛṣṇa in the company of Rādhā and other Gopīs increase. Kṛṣṇa with the flute is one of the most popular motifs; the sweet sound of Kṛṣṇa’s music attracts people to him so that they forget everything else and follow him into his enjoyments.

The
Kalki-avatāra
is described in two varieties: one two-armed, the other four-armed. In the
daśāvatāra
slabs we find usually the two-armed variety described in the
Viṣṇudkarmottara Purāṇa
as “a powerful man angry in mood, riding on horseback with a sword in his raised hand.”

Noteworthy also are representations of the
Viśvarūpa
aspect of Viṣṇu or Kṛṣṇa, and representations of Viṣṇu delivering the king of the elephants from the alligator.

The representation of Śrī is earlier than that of Viṣṇu; she is found as consort of Viṣṇu in all the
para
images:
sthānaka, āsana
, and
śayana
. In the first two varieties she is usually shown in a regal hieratic attitude -one of her hands often holding a full-blown lotus, another in a
varadā-mūdra
. In the
śayana-mūrtis
she is usually shown at the foot-end, massaging the feet of Viṣṇu.

Sītā in the company of Rāma is usually shown as a dignified lady; Rādhā in Kṛṣṇa’s company is depicted either responding to Kṛṣṇa’s flute or in a hieratic royal pose.

The images of Viṣṇu are his physical presence for the sake of receiving formal worship; ritual image-worship is one of the main means of winning God’s grace. The worship of Viṣṇu in images is as variegated as these images themselves: sometimes Viṣṇu is worshiped in the para-form, sometimes in the
vyūha
-form, sometimes in the
vibhava
-form.

The individual acts of formal worship are not exclusively Vaiṣṇava, some may even be Vedic:
mantra-japa
is a very universal practice and the particularity of Vaiṣṇavism lies only in the choice of a
Viṣṇu-mantra
. Vaiṣṇava in a more specific sense may be the congregational singing known as
saṅkīrtaṇa
, or also
nāma-kīrtaṇa
which seems to be of rather recent origin. The worship of the
mūrti
by prostration, by offering incense and light, is also part of non-Vaiṣṇava image worship. But for Viṣṇu worship only specific materials, flowers of certain colors, are allowed.

A universal characteristic of Vaiṣṇavism is its rejection of bloody animal sacrifices. The element of communion with Viṣṇu through a material object either touched by the image or through eating the remnants of the food offered to the
mūrti (prasāda)
is quite prominent. Usually Vaiṣṇavas enjoin exclusivity of worship: only Viṣṇu must be worshiped, only through Viṣṇu worship can salvation be attained; a Vaiṣṇava who worships other gods is considered a heretic who has no chance to attain
mukti
.

In the devotional literature Viṣṇu is implored under his different names as helper in various needs. The
avatāras
are invoked severally -the worshiper usually recounts the deed of the
avatāras
as a guarantee for help in similar distress. The
Nārāyaṇa-kavaca
enumerates the
avatāras
with the corresponding evils from which the devotee asks to be delivered.

Hymns to Viṣṇu and his manifestations abound both in Sanskṛt and the vernaculars. They are still used at the gatherings of devotees in
satsaṅgas –
they repeat the feats of Viṣṇu in his different
avatāras
, they glorify his greatness, they contain prayers for deliverance. Some places of pilgrimage are associated with certain
avatāras
of Viṣṇu and they usually celebrate the particular feast of the
avatāra
with great pomp. Very often the worship of Viṣṇu is fused with the worship of one of the great Vaiṣṇava saints, locally considered as
avatāras
themselves. In some sects the worship of Śrī or of Rādhā plays an important role. In later Vaiṣṇavism the worship of the
guru
becomes an integral part of Viṣṇu cult, the
guru
being the living presence of Viṣṇu for the disciple.

The rules laid down for worship in the numerous Vaiṣṇava sects are very complex and it is said that only scrupulous fulfillment will merit the grace of Viṣṇu.
¹⁴⁹
Feasts observed in honor of Viṣṇu or of his
avatāras
are too numerous to be mentioned here and they are often only of local importance. The great ones like
Kṛṣṇajanmāṣṭamī
, Kṛṣṇa’s birthday, have become national festivals. Observance of
vratas
like fasting on ekādaṣī is a very common practice among Vaiṣṇavas, considered essential for the attainment of the goal of religion. So is the observance of a strict vegetarian diet and a certain number of practical rules in daily life.

Viṣṇu
bhakti
has found its systematics in
Bhakti-sūtras
attributed to Śaṇḍilya and Nārada; they imitate even in their literary form the
Brahma-sūtras
of Bādarāyaṇa. The
bhāṣyas
on the
Vedānta-sūtras
by Vallabha, Nimbārka and Baladeva Vidyābhūṣana expound a Kṛṣṇa-Vedānta. There is also a large number of scholastic writing on the subject of
bhakti
, such as the
bhakti-sandarbha
, a section of the
Ṣaṭsandarbha
by Jīva Goswami.

The real source of the vitality of the
bhakti
religion, however, was always the enthusiasm of its poets and mystics, who traveled the length and breadth of India to sing the glories of their God.
¹⁵⁰
There is very little difference between Viṣṇu-, Śiva-, and
Devī-bhaktas
when they extol the need to practice
bhakti
. A very striking feature of almost all the
bhakti
poets and mystics is their insistence on the cultivation of high moral virtues such as purity, truthfulness, patience, forbearance, love, renunciation, selflessness, contentment with one’s state of life, self-control, pity, freedom from greed and hypocrisy, sincerity, and humility. They usually recommend as means to liberation the traditional Vaiṣṇava
sādhana:
holy company
(satsaṅga), kīrtaṇa
and
nāma-japa
, worship of a
mūrti
, submission under the guidance of a
guru
.

All of them emphasize that it is God’s grace that saves humans; our own activities only prepare us for it. In many beautiful verses they express the intense longing for God so typical for Vaiṣṇavism. Very often the
bhakti
poet-mystics use Vedāntic expressions when describing their religious experiences. Side by side they also use traditional Vaiṣṇava mythology and imagery. They take the historical humanity of Rāma-Sītā or Kṛṣṇa-Rādhā literally in every detail, but at the same time they see these as the manifestation of an ineffable Absolute.

The Āḷvārs, a group of twelve South Indian poet-mystics flourished between the sixth and the ninth century C.E. in the Tamil country. Devotees of Māl (the Tamil name for Kṛṣṇa and Viṣṇu Nārāyaṇa), they composed thousands of stirring hymns that they sang while moving from place to place. Many of these hymns were later collected in the
Nalayira Divya Prabandham
, “The Book of 4000 Verses,” which became recognized as a revealed text by the Śrīvaiṣṇava Ācāryas at Śrīraṅgam, still widely used in temple worship in South India today. The greatest of the āḷvārs was Nammāḷvār, also called Śathakopan (seventh century C.E.). There was one woman among them, Āṇṭāl, also called Goda (725–755 C.E.) who was so overwhelmed by her love for Viṣṇu that she refused to marry anyone else. According to tradition she bodily merged into the Viṣṇu image at Śrīraṅgam after having formally married him. Her birthplace Śrīvilliputtur, which keeps her memory alive, boasts the tallest Gopura in India.

In later centuries a powerful Vaiṣṇava revival movement began in Karṇāṭaka under the name of “Dāsa Kuṭa”, the association of the Servants of God. Its founder Śrīpadirāja, also known as Lakṣmīnārāyaṇa Tīrtha, was the head of the Padmanābha Tīrtha at Mulbagal in the former Mysore State.
¹⁵¹
He wrote poetry under the pen name of Raṅga Viṭhala, indicating thereby his devotion to Viṭhala (a name of Viṣṇu) in Pandharpur, a place of pilgrimage later claimed by the Mahrattas.

The scholar Vyāsarāya, a follower of Madhva, was also a gifted poet of mystical Viṣṇu devotion. Virtually all the great
ācāryas
of the various Vaiṣṇava schools also composed inspired poems that are used in congregational worship today.

The Dāsa movement spread beyond the borders of Karṇāṭaka and influenced the development of a group of Mahārāṣṭrian poet-mystics whose songs are much alive today. Among the most famous of these is jñānadeva (c.1275–1350), the author of the
Jñāneśvarī
, a lengthy commentary on the
Bhagavadgītā
, and composer of many
abhaṅgas
(hymns) in praise of Viṭhoba. His disciple Nāmadeva (1270–1350), who reputedly had lead a life of brigandry before his conversion, spent most of his later life in Pandharpur, singing the praises of God. Another famous bhakta, Ekanātha (1533–1598) wrote a commentary on part of the
Bhāgavata-Purāṇa
and composed many
abhaṅgas
. Tukārām (1608–49), born into a low-caste family in Dehu near Pune, became such an ardent devotee of Viṭhoba that he neglected his family business. He is one of the most popular poet-saints of Mahārāṣṭṛa and his memory is kept alive by the Vārkarīs, a group of devotees of Viṭhobha, who continue singing Tukārām’s
abhaṅgas
at their fortnightly gatherings in Dehu.