Hinduism: A Short History (43 page)

that has emanated from

Possibly in imitation of the Vaiṣṇava
daśa-avatāras
, the Tāntrikas know
daśa-vidyās:
Kālī, Tārā, Ṣodaśī, Bhuvaneśvarī, Bhairavī, Chinnamaṣṭā, Dhūmāvatī, Bagalā, Maṭaṅgī, Kāmalātmīkā.
⁹⁰

DEVĪ WORSHIP AND ICONOGRAPHY

Since it is the aim of the Tāntrika to become one with the Goddess, conceived as present in flesh and blood, it becomes understandable that bodily worship and physical acts of devotion play a central role in Tāntricism. The earliest Tantric texts are hymns to the Goddess and the bulk of later Devī religious literature consists of hymns,
mantras
, description of rituals, feasts, and ceremonies. Whereas Devī mythology is comparatively uniform, Devī worship takes innumerable forms. It is usually connected with some material object that represents Devī; she is
prakṛti
, never “pure spirit”.
⁹¹

The material object may be a
yantra –
either drawn on the ground, or on a piece of paper, or engraved in metal or stone
⁹²
– or a
ghata
(an earthen pot) covered with red cloth, or a sculpted or painted image of the Devī. These again are much more diversified than the images of any other deity. Devī is represented either as the consort of Śiva or Viṣṇu, as the Great Mother, as Śakti of Śiva or Viṣṇu, as Virgin, or in any other of the many forms under which she is invoked by Sāktas.

As the consort of Śiva she is represented with two, four, six, or ten arms – holding lotus,
pāśa
(noose),
aṅkuśa
(goad),
śaṅkha
(conch),
cakra
(discus), and showing
varadā
(boon-giving) and
abhaya mudrā
(reassuring gesture) while one hand may be hanging free.
⁹³
Sometimes she is represented as having three eyes. She is standing at the side of Śiva, sitting at his side, or sitting on his left thigh.

There is another representation of Devī in which she is still associated with Śiva but not subordinated. As Durgā she has nine forms: in all of them she has four, eight, or more arms, three eyes, a dark complexion and she is standing either on a
padmāsana
or on the head of a buffalo or seated on the back of a lion. Her breast is bound with a snake. She is the “dear younger sister of Viṣṇu who came out of the Ādiśakti.” Her nine forms are worshiped for various ends: as Nīlakaṇṭhī she is the bestower of wealth and happiness, and as Kṣemaṅkarī she gives health. Harasiddhī is worshiped for the “attainment of desired ends,” as Rudrāṃśa Durgā, Vana Durgā, Agni Durgā, Vindhyavāsinī Durgā, and as Ripumārī Durgā she has a predominantly terrific aspect. One of the most popular images is that of Devī Mahiṣamārdiṇī or Kātyāyanī. She has usually three eyes, wearing on the head the
jaṭa-makuṭa
(crown of matted hair) and the
candra-kalā
(crescent moon); her body is of the color of the
atasī
(Jasmine) flower. She has ten hands: in the right ones she carries
triśula
(trident),
khadga
(sword),
śaktyāyudhā
(missile),
cakra
(discus), and
dhānus
(bow); in the left ones
pāśa
(noose),
aṅkuśa
(goad),
kbeṭaka
(club),
paraśu
(battle-axe),
and ghaṇṭa
(bell). At her feet should be a buffalo, decapitated, with blood gushing from its neck. The
asura
emerging from it in human form should be half visible, pinned down by the
nāga-pāśa
of the Goddess. The right foot of the Devī is on the back of the lion, the left one on the head of
mahiṣa
.

There is also an image of Navadurgā, depicting Devī with eighteen hands, that is “capable of granting all powers.”

Many of the forms of Devī mentioned in the myths are represented in figures too: Bhadrakālī, Mahākālī, Aṃbā, Aṃbikā, Maṅgalā, Sarva-Maṅgalā, Kālarātrī, Lalitā, Gaurī, Umā, Pārvatī, Rambhā, and so forth. Totalā is said to be able to destroy all sins. As Tripurā she is the object of worship of the Tāntrikas, often represented as residing in
maṇi-dvīpa
, the jewel-island, often combined with the Śiva-Sava.

As Bhūtamāta Devī she is worshiped by
bhūtas
(ghosts),
pretas
(restless souls of dead people), and
Piśācas
(evil spirits), by Indra, Yakṣas, and Gandharvas.

There is a group of eight Devīs with a predominantly terrific function who are worshiped for the destruction of enemies and the removal of fear from devotees: they are Jyeṣṭhā, Raudrī, Kālī, Kalavikarṇikā, Balavi-karṇikā, Sarvabhūtadamanī, Bālāpramathanī, Manonmanī.

The various
avatāras
of Devī mentioned in the
Devī Purāṇas
are also represented figuratively: thus we find statues of Varuṇī-Cāmuṇḍā, Rakta-Cāmuṇḍā, Śiva-dūtī, Yogeśvarī, Bhairavī, of Śiva, Kīrti, Siddhi, Riddhi, Kṣamā, Dīpti, Rati, Śvetā, Bhadrā, chaṇṭākarṇī, Diti, Arundhatī, Aparājitā, Surabhi, of Kṛṣṇā, Indrāksī, Annapūrnā, Tulasīdevī, Asvar-udhadevī, Bhuvaneśvarī, Bālā, and Rājamātaṅgī. Of special importance is the image of Kālī. Associated with Viṣṇu, Devī is represented as Lakṣmī, Bhūmī, Sītā, Rukmiṇī, Satyabhāma, and Rādhā. With Brahmā she is associated as Sarasvatī.

The Sapta-mātṛkās (Seven Mothers) are usually represented as a group in the temples of South India.

The hymns by which Devī is addressed consist, as usual, of an enumeration of her titles, qualities, and achievements. Again we have differences stemming from the various conceptions of Devī: as consort of Śiva or Viṣṇu she is praised as faithful wife; as “Great Mother” she is identified with
brahman
, with
prakṛti
, and with
ātman
. The five functions of creation, preservation, attraction, liberation, and destruction are ascribed to her.
⁹⁴
In Tantric worship she is identified with certain
mantras
, and letters and the worship of the
yantra
play a great role. In other forms of worship she is seen incorporated in a woman who receives worship as Devī. Some of the most popular and profound hymns to Devī are ascribed to Śaṅkarācārya.
⁹⁵
She is praised as Mother, as Eternal, as granting both enjoyment and liberation, as the body of Śambhu, identified with the material universe and with the subtle elements: “O mother, may all my speech, howsoever idle, be recitation of
mantra;
may all my actions with my hand be the making of
mudrā;
may all my walking be
pradakṣina;
may all my eating and other functions be
homa
rites; may my act of lying down be prostration before thee; may all my pleasures be an offering to the
ātman
. Whatsoever I do may it be counted for the worship of thee.”
⁹⁶

Much of
Tantra
hymnology is written in the so-called
sāmdhya
(“twilight”) style, that is, with a double meaning: one gross and sensual, the other sublime and spiritual. Only the initiated will discover the true sense.

Promises are usually attached to the recitation of Devī hymns: the devotee is assured of the forgiveness of sins, of
mukti
, of all sorts of blessings, of an appearance of Devī. The same blessing is usually attached to the listening to, and recitation of, texts related to Devī worship as, for example, the
Devī-Bhāgavata Purāṇa
.

Devī worship consists largely of the same acts as that employed in the worship of Viṣṇu or Śiva. But a few peculiar features are worth mentioning. One of them is bloody sacrifice. The proper worship of Devī is done through the killing of a victim. In former times human sacrifice was connected with several important centers of Devī worship, and assuredly a large number of people met their death as offerings to Devī.
⁹⁷
Now, usually the sacrifice of fowls and goats takes the place of human sacrifice. Sexual promiscuity also often formed part of Devī worship at certain places. Black magic and sorcery are also closely connected with several centers of Devī worship.

Tāntrikas in former times did not attribute any importance to pilgrimage since the union of Devī and Śiva could be found in one’s own body. But later on fifty-one Śakti-pīṭhas came to be recognized as centers of Śakti pilgrimage, according to legend they were the places where the parts of Satī fell to the earth.
⁹⁸
Every one of these places has its own legends and promises of merits and gain in this world and in the next.

Assam has been the center of Śāktism as far back as our knowledge of Śāktism goes. The most famous of the Assamese temples, Kāmākhyā near Guwahatī, is the most important of the
Śakti-pīṭhas
, the place where the
yoni
fell down, appearing as a cleft rock.
⁹⁹
She is worshiped there under the title Kāmeśvarī. According to the
Kālikā Purāṇa
the mountain upon which it fell is Śiva’s body.

Thus Kāmākhyā is both a cemetery and the place of the activity of Śiva-Śakti. Both these aspects, death and life, seem to be essential for Śāktism. Reportedly, even now both right-hand and left-hand practices are performed in this temple and animals are slaughtered at its altars.
¹⁰⁰

The main feast in honor of Devī is Devī-nava-rātra, popularly known as Durgā-pūjā in Bengal where it is the greatest festival of the year.
¹⁰¹
It is celebrated to commemorate the visit of Pārvatī at her parents’ home after her marriage to Śiva, and even now married daughters continue the custom by returning for this occasion to their parents’ homes. Numerous images of Devī-Mahiṣamārdiṇī are put up in houses and public places; at the end of the festival these images are immersed in the Gaṅgā or the sea. Often worship is performed before earthen vessels draped in red cloth, symbols of Devī.

Major centers of Devī worship have their own peculiar feasts. One of these is Ambuvācī, when Mother Earth is supposed to have her menses and the temple remains closed for three days.
¹⁰²
Only red flowers are used in worship at this time, and devotees receive red cloth.

Devī worship is particularly intense in times of epidemics. These are interpreted as signs of the wrath of the Goddess, because her worship had been neglected. Then she has to be appeased by the sacrifice of buffaloes, pigeons, and goats.
¹⁰³
Similarly, Devī is invoked when somebody has been bitten by a snake or shows signs of poisoning.
¹⁰⁴
Usually it is Devī herself who in the Purāṇas and Tantras exhorts people to worship her and also gives instructions as to how people should do it.

ŚĀKTA PHILOSOPHY

Much of Śākta ideology forms an integral part of certain schools of Śaivism.
¹⁰⁵
Śiva and Pārvatī are considered to be the “world-parents,” their mutual dependence is so great that one cannot be without the other, and thus we find, in the figure of Śiva
ardhā-nārī
, Śiva and Pārvatī combined into one being which manifests a dual aspect. It is not improbable that the original Sāṁkhya system had the same basic philosophy. It is, then, only a matter of emphasis whether a certain system is called Śāktism or Śaivism, depending largely on the relative importance attributed to either the male or the female principle.

The peculiarity of Śāktism is the acceptance of material creation as basic reality, and its emphasis on the existence of
māyā
as an entity: Śakti is called Ādya- or Mūla-prakṛti and Mahāmāyā. The
Tripurā Rahasya
, a Śākta Tantra, explicity says: “Do not conclude that there is no such thing as the world. Such thinking is imperfect and defective. Such a belief is impossible. One who tries to negate the whole world by the mere act of thought brings it to existence by that very act of negation. Just as a city reflected in a mirror is not a reality but exists as a reflection, so also this world is not a reality in itself but is consciousness all the same. This is self-evident. This is perfect knowledge.”
¹⁰⁶

At the same time it is not possible to classify Śāktism proper as either Dvaita or Advaita: the
Mahānirvāṇa Tantra
calls it
Dvaitādvaita vivarjita
. For Śāktism the fetters that bind are neither illusionary as Advaita claims nor are they pure evil to be removed from the
ātman
as Dvaita intends to do, but they are the means to liberation. The imperfections or fetters “have their place and function in the descent of the universe from its ultimate perfect source and have therefore got to be resolved and not simply ‘by-passed’ when ascent is thought from cosmic limitations to the purity, freedom and perfections of the ultimate source. The
Jīvā
has to work out his salvation not by simply negating his limitations and his evil, but by so working them up that they become his allies, his helpers, and ultimately his liberation.”
¹⁰⁷

The oneness of
bhukti
and
mukti
, of means to fetter and to free, of
māyā
and
vidyā
, is one of the characteristic signs of Śākta soteriology. Thus the
Tripurā Rahasya
says: “There is no such thing as bondage or liberation. There is no such thing as the seeker and the means for seeking. Partless, Non-Dual, Conscious Energy, Tripurā alone pervades everything. She is both knowledge and ignorance, bondage and liberation too. She is also the means for liberation. This is all one has to know.”
¹⁰⁸

The metaphysical principle behind this teaching is the realization that the body is not evil, but the incarnation and manifestation of Śiva-Śakti, taking part in his divine play
(ullāsa)
. In poison there are healing qualities if rightly applied by a wise physician. In the body, seemingly the prison of the spirit, lies the coiled-up energy that enables one to reach limitless freedom. This Kuṇḍalinī Śakti has to be awakened, and that awakening constitutes one of the main practices of Śāktism which is only partly accessible through theory.
¹⁰⁹