Hinduism: A Short History (53 page)

Authors: Klaus K. Klostermaier

BOOK: Hinduism: A Short History

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Kuppuswamy Sastri Birth Centenary Commemoration Volume

, Part I, (Madras, 1981). This claim is also supported by the information on the scholastic engagement of the Śaṅkarācāryas past and present, in W. Cenkner,

A Tradition of Teachers

, esp. chap. 4: “The Teaching Heritage after Śaṅkara,” 84–106.

Thus the commentaries on Gaṅgeśa’s

Tattvacintāmani

were called

Didhiti, Gaṅgādhārī, Karṣikā, Candrakālā, Nakṣatramālikā

, etc. See R. Thangasami Sarma,

Dȧrśanamañjarī

, Part 1 (Madras: University of Madras, 1985), 64f.

S. N. Dasgupta,

History of Indian Philosophy

, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1961, vol. 1, 282.

See the evidence offered by S. N. Dasgupta, ibid.

10.

It has only been preserved in a Chinese translation; this has been edited and translated and commented upon by H. Ui (1917; reprint Varanasi: Chowkhambha Sanskrit Series, 1962).

11.

Early writers use the word

Nyāya

as a synonym with

Mīmāṃsā

12.

Arthaśāstra 2

, 30, a text often referred to in this connection. So far I have not seen reference made to

Viṣṇu Purāṇa

I, 9, 121 which has the same enumeration of sciences. In this text the Goddess (after the churning of the Milk Ocean) is addressed as the embodiment of all knowledge

(vidyā)

specifically of

anvīkṣikī, trayī, vārtā

, and

daṇḍanīti

13.

Vaiśeṣikardarśana

, Anantalal Thakur, ed. Darbhanga: Mithila Institute, 1957. N. Sinha, trans., Allahabad: Paṇini Office, 1911.

14.

W. Halbfass in an excursus “The Concept of Viśesa and the name of the Vaiśeṣika System,” in

On Being

..., 269–75, offers alternative suggestions.

15.

Padārthadharmasaṅgraha

No. 156, Ganganatha Jha, trans. (Allahabad: Lazarus 1916).

16.

Dasgupta,

HIPh

, vol. 1, 363.

17.

These “nine things” are:

buddhi

(understanding),

sūkha

(happiness),

duḥkha

(suffering),

icchā

(desire),

dveṣa

(hatred),

prayatna

(effort),

dharma

(righteousness),

adharma

(unrighteousness),

saṃskāra

(innate propensity).

18.

Nyāyasūtra

with

Vātsyāyana Bhāṣya

, Ganganatha Jha, ed., trans. and commentator, 2 vols. (Pune: Oriental Book Agency, 1939).

19.

Maṇkana, A

Navya-Nyāya Manual, E. R. Sreekrishna Sarma, ed. and trans., Adyar: The Adyar Library and Research Center, 1960, Introduction, xvii.

20.

Nyāya Sūtra

I, 1, 22.

21.

Ibid., IV, 1,

22.

For details see G. Chemparathy,

An Indian Rational Theology. Introduction to Udayana’s Nyāyakusumañjalī

, Vienna: Indological Institute of the University of Vienna, 1972.

23.

Udayanācārya’s

Nyāyakusumañjalī

with the commentary of Haridāsa Bhattacarya, E. B. Cowell, trans., Calcutta, 1864.

24.

Nyāya-bhāsya

IV, 1, 21f.

25.

Tarkabhāṣa of Keśava Miśra

, Ganganatha Jha, ed. and trans., Pune: Oriental Book Agency, 1949.

26.

The best-known text of Haṭhayoga is the

Haṭhayogapradīpikā

by Svātmārāma Yogīndra, Adyar: Theosophical Publishing House, 1933.

27.

See Chapter 23.

28.

E.g.,

Bhāgavata Purāṇa

II, 25, 13ff.; Ill, 28.

29.

A. B. Keith,

The Sāṁkhya System

, The Heritage of India Series, Calcutta: YMCA Publishing House, 1949, 18. The most comprehensive recent study of Sāṁkhya is G J. Larsen,

Classical Sāṁkhya

, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1969. See also H. Bakker, “On the Origin of the Sāṁkhya Psychology,” in:

WZKSA 26

(1982), 117–148, with an extensive bibliography. G J. Larsen makes an important point in his essay “The Format of Technical Philosophical Writing in Ancient India: Inadequacies of Conventional Translations,”

Philosophy of East and West

, 30, no. 3 (1980): 375–80. Comprehensive information on the development of Sāṁkhya is contained in E. Frauwallner,

Geschichte der Indischen Philosophie

, Salzburg: Otto Müller Verlag, 1953, vol. 1, 228ff and 472ff.

30.

Bhāgavata Purāṇa

III, 28.

31.

The best edition and translation with ample comments is that by S. S. Suryanarayana Sastri (Madras: University of Madras, 1948). Also

Sāṁkhya Kārikā

of Mahāmuni Śri Īśvarakṛṣṇa with the commentary

Sārabodhinī

of Pandit Śivanārāyaṇa Śāstrī with

Sāṅkhya Tattvakaumudī

of Vācaspati Miśra, Bombay: Nirnaya Sagar Press, 1940.

32.

Sāṁkhyadarśana

, Pyarelal Prabhu Dayal, ed., Bombay: Nirnaya Sagar Press, 1943; J. R. Ballantyne, trans., London: Truebner 1885 (3rd edn).

33.

Edited and translated under the title

The Yoga Upantṣads

(Adyar: Adyar Library, 1920 and 1952).

34.

A good edition is that by Swāmi Vijñāna Āśrama (Ajmer, 1961). A complete English translation of the Pātañjala

Yogasūtra

with Vyāsa’s

Bhāsya

and Vācaspati Miśra’s

Tattva Vaiśāradī

has been published by J. H. Woods in the

Harvard Oriental Series

Vol. 17 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1914). Students may find useful I. K. Taimni

The Science of Yoga

, Wheaton, Ill.: Theosophical Publishing House, 1972 (3rd edn); it offers the text and the translation of the

Yogasūtra

and a good running commentary that avoids the technicalities of the classical commentaries. Valuable recent treatments of Yoga are: S. N. Dasgupta,

Yoga as Philosophy and Religion

, 1924; reprint Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1973; J. W. Hauer,

Der Yoga als Heilsweg

, Stuttgart, Kohlhammer, 1932; G. Feuerstein,

The Philosophy of Classical Yoga

, Manchester: University of Manchester Press, 1982; G. M. Koelman,

Pātañjala Yoga. Prom Related Ego to Absolute Self

, Pune: Papal Athenaeum, 1970. M. Eliade,

Yoga: Immortality and Freedom

, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1958; 1969 (2nd edn) has become a classic in its own right: it not only describes Pātañjala Yoga but compares it to other phenomena, and it has an exhaustive bibliography of works up to 1964. Controversial new ideas on classical Yoga are advanced in G. Oberhammer,

Strukturen Yogischer Meditation

, Vienna: Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1977.

35.

Tejobindu Upaniṣad

, VI, 107.

36.

P. Hacker, “Śaṅkara der Yogin und Śaṅkara der Advaitin: Einige Beobachtungen,”

WZKSA

12–13 (1968): 119–48. A full translation of the work was published by James Legget in 1990.

37.

Sāṁkhya Kārikā

38.

This is the traditional interpretation given to

duḥkhatraya

39.

Sāṁkhya Kārikā 2

40.

Ibid., 18.

41.

Ibid., 8.

42.

Ibid., 63.

43.

Ibid., 67.

44.

Yogasūtra

I, 5ff.

45.

Ibid., I, 23ff.

46.

Ibid., II, 5f.

47.

According to Haṭhayoga the

utthita padmāsana

confers superhuman vision and cures troubles of the respiratory tract;

sūpta padmāsana

cures illnesses of the digestive organs,

bhadrāsana

activates the mind,

dhastricāsana

regulates body-temperature, cures fever and purifies the blood,

guptāṅgāsana

cures venereal diseases, etc. There are centers in India, like the Yoga Research Institute at Lonavla, in which medical research is done on the effects of

yoga

on body and mind.

48.

Yogasūtra

II, 54.

49.

Ibid., Ill, 1–3.

50.

Ibid., Ill, 16ff.

51.

Ibid., IV, 34: 51.

52.

These notions find a surprising parallel in contemporary scientific thought. See I. Prigogine,

Order Out of Chaos

, New York: Bantam Books, 1948.

53.

Hohm Press: Prescott, Arizona, 1998. It has 686 large pages with text and illustrations.

54.

Jaimini Sūtras

I, 1, 2:

codanalakṣano’artho dharmab

55.

Ibid., I, 2, 1.

56.

Śābara Bhāṣya

I, 1, 22: “There can be no creator of this relation because no soul is cognized as such by any of the means of cognition. If there had been such a creator, he could not have been forgotten.” Cf. also: Kumārila Bhaṭṭa,

Ślokavārttika

, XVI, 41ff.

57.

Ganganatha Jha,

pūrvamimāṃsā in Its Sources

, 178ff.

58.

Jaimini Sūtras

Vi, 1, 6ff.

59.

Ganganatha Jha,

pūrvamīmāṃsā in Its Sources

, 264f.

60.

Jaimini Sūtras

IV, 3, 15.

61.

Śābara Bhāṣya

on VI, 1, 1.

62.

Nyāyaratnākara:

“Liberation must consist in the destruction of the present body and the non-production of the future body.” Quoted by G. Jha,

Pūrva Mīmāṃsā

, 38.

63.

Prakāraṇapañakā, Tattvāloka

, p. 156.

64.

O. Gäch’ter,

Hermeneutics and Language in pūrvamīmāṃsā, A Study in Śābara Bhāṣya

(Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1983) with bibliographic references to both Eastern and Western authors.

65.

H. G. Coward,

The Sphoṭa Theory of Language. A Philosophical Analysis

(Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1980), with extensive bibliography. The complete text has been edited by Prof. K. V Abhyankar and Acharya V P. Limaye in the University of Poona Sanskrit and Prakrit Series, Pune: University of Puna, 1965.

66.

Rāmdās Gaur,

Hindutva

, 589.

67.

According to S. K. Belvalkar

(Shree Gopal Basu Mallik Lectures on Vedānta Philosophy

, (Pune: Bilvakunja, 1929, Part 1, Chapter 4: “Vedānta in the Brahmasūtras” (142), Jaimini, the author of the

Mīmāṃsāsūtra

wrote a

Śarīrakasūtra

, which sought to harmonize the teaching of the

Sāmaveda Upaniṣads

, particularly the

Chāndogya Upaniṣad

, and this

sūtra

was incorporated within, and forms the main part of the present text of the

Brahmasūtra

68.

The ten recognized

Vedāntācāryas

are: Śaṅkara, Rāmānuja, Madhva, Vallabha, Bhāskara, Yādavaprakāśa, Keśava, Nīlākantha, Vijñāna-bhikṣu, and Bāladeva. They are the founders of separate branches of Vedānta philosophy. There are several comparative studies of the different schools of Vedānta such as V. S. Ghate,

The Vedānta

, Pune: Oriental Bookstore, 1926; reprint 1960; O. Lacombe,

L’absolu selon le Vedānta

, Paris: Geuthner, 1957; reprint 1973. See also B. N. K. Sharma,

A Comparative Study of Ten Commentaries on the Brahmasūtras

, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1984.

69.

Cf. Ramdas Gaur,

Hindutva

(in Hindī), Kasi: Madhav Viṣṇu Paradkar, 1995, 591ff.

70.

Some researchers place Śaṅkara’s birth around 600 C.E.