Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan (218 page)

57.
Fujiwara,
Sh
wa tenn
no j
gonen sens
, p. 42.

58.
Military spending fell from a high of 60.14 percent in 1920 to 28.52 percent in 1930. Expressed in terms of GNP, the decline was from 5.86 percent to 3.03 percent. See Yamada Akira,
Gunbi kakuch
no kindaishi: Nihongun no b
ch
to h
kai
(Yoshikawa K
bunkan, 1997), p. 10.

59.
Russians who surrendered during the four-year long Siberian war were not treated as POWs, suggesting that Japanese soldiers either killed them on the spot or, less probable, released them after they had pledged not to fight again. Yui Daizabur
, Kosuge Nobuko,
Reng
koku horyo gyakutai to sengo sekinin
(Iwanami Bukkuretto no. 321, 1993), p.16.

60.
Yoshida Yutaka,
Tenn
no guntai to Nankin jiken
(Aoki Shoten, 1985), p. 191.

61.
Ibid.

62.
Ibid., pp. 193–94.

63.
Ibid., p. 191.

64.
Kataoka Tetsuya, “Sh
wa shoki: Nihon rikugun e no shakaigakuteki apuroochi” in
Gunji shigaku
22, no. 4 (1987), pp. 20–21.

65.
Ibid., pp. 23–24.

66.
Kataoka, p. 25, notes that in 1928 Gens. Araki Sadao, Obata Toshishir
,
and Suzuki Osamichi revised
T
sui k
ry
, making the principle of the offensive and the primacy of spirit over material force the dominant ideas of the Japanese army.