Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan (284 page)

47.
Kasahara,
Nankin jiken
, pp. 181–87.

48.
Ibid., p. 190.

49.
TWCT,
vol. 20
: Judgment and Annexes
, transcript p. 49, 608.

50.
Yoshida Yutaka,
Tenn
no guntai to Nankin jihen
(Aoki Shoten, 1988), p. 160; Fujiwara Akira, “Nankin daigyakusatsu no giseishas
ni tsuite—‘Tokyo saiban shikan' hihan ga imi suru mono,” in
Rekishi chiri ky
iku
530 (Mar. 1995), p. 72; Daqing Yang, “Convergence or Divergence? Recent Historical Writing on the Rape of Nanjing,” in
American Historical Review
104, no. 3 (June 1999), p. 850.
The ill-preparedness of Japanese recruits for the sacrifices they were forced to make during and after the Battle of Shanghai often figures in explanations of their mass murder of Chinese POWs at Nanking. Competing with one another to reach and completely encircle the city, the soldiers craved revenge for the heavy losses they had suffered up to its fall. The vagueness of Japan's proclaimed war aims contributed to their frustration and confusion. Above all they held Chinese in contempt as an inferior race. Deeper reasons for the Nanking atrocity had to do with the characteristics of the Imperial Army itself. For recent discussions see K
ketsu Atsushi, “Tenn
no guntai no tokushitsu: zangyaku k
i no rekishiteki haikei,” p. 12; Fujiwara Akira, “Nitch
sens
ni okeru horyo gyakusatsu,” in
Kikan sens
sekinin dai ky
g
(Autumn 1995), pp. 22–23.

51.
Eguchi Keiichi,
Taikei Nihon no rekishi 14: futatsu no taisen
(Sh
gakukan, 1989), p. 259, citing the
Chicago Daily News
, Dec. 15, 1937. Using esti
mates made years earlier by members of the Nanking International Relief Committee, journalist Edgar Snow claimed that “the Japanese murdered no less than 42,000 people in Nanking alone” and another “300,000 civilians…in their march between Shanghai and Nanking.” See Snow,
The Battle for Asia
, p. 57.

52.
Yoshimi Yoshiaki hen,
J
gun ianfu shiry
sh
(
tsuki Shoten, 1992), see the chart on p. 170; K
ketsu, “Tenn
no guntai no tokushitsu: zangyaku k
i no rekishiteki haikei,” p. 14.