I Didn't Do It for You (47 page)
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Authors: Michela Wrong
11
The Falasha episode, and the ultimately unsuccessful US attempt to broker a peace agreement between Mengistu and the EPLF and TPLF, is recounted in Herman J Cohen's
Intervening in Africa: Peacemaking in a Troubled Continent
, Palgrave, New York, 2000
12
Alex de Waal,
Evil Days
, Human Rights Watch, September 1991. In late 1989, Washington Jewish Week published a leaked US Congressional staff memo confirming that 100 cluster bombs had been supplied to the Ethiopians in late 1989
13
In May 2001, Russia President Vladimir Putin agreed to cancel 80 per cent of Ethiopia's outstanding debts and said the balance would be rescheduled through the Paris Club
14
The Promised Land proved a mixed experience for the Falashas. Shunted into isolated development towns in Israel, many ended up doing menial jobs. The community complains that its members are discriminated against because of its skin colour and are regarded as second-class Jews. In January 1996, the discovery that their blood donations were being routinely thrown away because of AIDS contamination fears triggered a wave of Falasha rioting. Nevertheless, the Israeli and Ethiopian governments agreed in January 2004 to complete the repatriation of Ethiopia's remaining Falashas
15
Author's interview
16
16 Interview on âThe World at One', BBC Radio 4, June 4, 1991
Chapter 17 A Village of No Interest
1
Author's interview
2
Paul Henze,
Eritrea's War
, Shama Books, 2001, p 24
3
Dan Connell,
Against All OddsâA Chronicle of the Eritrean Revolution
, The Red Sea Press, 1997, p 272
4
Shabia
means âthe masses' in Tigrinya, while
Woyane
translates as âpopularly-based'. Depending on context and tone, the terms can be either matey or insulting, rather like the âYank' Britons use to refer to Americans or the âPom' Australians apply to Britons
5
Eritrea has since admitted that Bezabeh Petros died in custody
6
Patrick Gilkes and Martin Plaut, âWar in the Horn. The Conflict
between Eritrea and Ethiopia', Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1999, p 22
7
Amnesty International: âEthiopia/Eritrea. Amnesty International witness cruelty of mass deportations', January 29, 1999; âEthiopia and Eritrea: Human rights issues in a year of conflict', May 21, 1999; Human Rights Watch: âThe Horn of Africa War: Mass Expulsions and the Nationality Issue' June 1998âApril 2002
8
Author's interview
9
On November 25, 2004, as this book was going to press, Ethiopia appeared to soften its position, saying it accepted the boundary commission finding, however âillegal and unjust'. But Prime Minister Meles Zenawi stressed the acceptance was âin principle' and Ethiopia expected âgive and take' in implementation, suggesting his country has yet to recognise the binding nature of the border ruling.
10
Britain, for example, said in February 2004 that it would triple its bilateral aid to Ethiopia to £53m. Announcing the rise, Hillary Benn, international development secretary, specifically ruled out using the aid as a way of pressurizing Addis into accepting the boundary ruling, saying London hoped the stalemate could be resolved through dialogue
11
One notable example is Dan Connell, a journalist who covered the EPLF liberation campaign in impressive detail. âEnough! A Critique of Eritrea's Post-Liberation Politics', presented at African Studies Association in Boston in November 2003, summarized his disquiet over events
Chapter 18 âIt's good to be normal'
1
For more details of the
manqa
episode,
see
David Pool,
From Guerrillas to GovernmentâThe Eritrean People's Liberation Front
, James Currey, 2001. Two years later, Isaias faced another challenge by a group of Christian highlanders pushing for greater democratic accountability. Over a dozen members of the ârightist movement', as it was known, were executed. Like the
manqa
affair, the episode has been air-brushed out of the leadership's memories of this period
2
David Strickland and Thomas Bowidowicz, two Americans working at Kagnew, were kidnapped in September 1975 by the ELF, which threatened to kill them unless the US halted arms supplies to Ethiopia and closed Kagnew. They were subsequently released
Bamford, Jamesâ
The Puzzle Palace
, Penguin, 1983
Bereket, Habte Selassieâ
Eritrea and the United Nations
, The Red Sea Press, 1989
Connell, Danâ
Conversations with Eritrean Political Prisoners
, The Red Sea Press, 2005
Duncan, W Raymond and Ekedahl, Carolym McGiffertâ
Moscow and the Third World under Gorbachev
, Westview Press, 1990
Erlich, Haggaiâ
The Struggle Over Eritrea 1962â1978
, Hoover Institution Press, 1983
ESFAâ
The Federal Case of Eritrea with Ethiopia
, Mogadishu, 1979
Gandar Dower, Kennethâ
Abyssinian Patchwork, An Anthology
, Frederick Muller Ltd, 1949
Goodman, Melvinâ
Gorbachev's Retreat
, Praeger Publishers, 1991
Harding, Jeremyâ
Small Wars, Small Mercies: Journeys in Africa's Disputed Nations
, Viking, 1993
Henze, Paul Bâ
Horn of Africa: From War to Peace
, Macmillan, 1991
Henze, Paul BââArming the Horn 1960â1980', Wilson Centre Working Paper No 43, Washington DC, Smithsonian Institution, December 1982
Killion, Tomâ
Historical Dictionary of Eritrea
, Scarecrow Press, 1998
Lefebvre, Jeffreyâ
Arms for the Horn: US Security Policy in Ethiopia and Somalia 1953â1991
, University of Pittsburgh Press, 1991
Levine, Donaldâ
Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multi-Ethnic Society
, University of Chicago Press, 1974
Lewis, Jon (editor)â
The Mammoth Book of Battles: The Art and Science of Modern Warfare
, Robinson Publishing, 1995
Longrigg, Stephenâ
A Short History of Eritrea
, Clarendon Press, 1945
Luard, Evanâ
A History of the United Nations. Volume 2 The Age of Decolonisation 1955â1965
, The Macmillan Press Ltd, 1989
Lyons, TerrenceââThe United States and Ethiopia: The Politics of a PatronâClient Relationship',
Northeast African Studies
Volume 8, Numbers 2â3, 1986
Mack Smith, Denisâ
Italy, A Modern History
, University of Michigan Press, 1969
Mack Smith, Denisâ
Mussolini
, Granada, 1981
Mack Smith, Denisâ
Mussolini's Roman Empire
, Longman, 1976
Martini, Ferdinandoâ
L'Eritrea Economica
, Istituto Geografico de Agostini, 1913
McGiffert Ekedahl, Carolym and Goodman, Melvinâ
The Wars of Eduard Shevardnadze
, C. Hurst and Co, 1997
Mockler, Anthonyâ
Haile Selassie's War: The ItalianâEthiopian Campaign 1935â1941
, Random House, 1984
Negash, Tekeste and Tronvoll, Kjetilâ
Brothers at War: Making Sense of the EritreanâEthiopian War
, James Currey Ltd, 2000
Negassi, Amina HabteââThe Massacre of Besik-Dira and Ona', University of Asmara, Department of History, July 2001
Ottaway, Marinaâ
Soviet and American Influence in the Horn of Africa
, Praeger Publishers, 1982
Pankhurst, E. Sylvia and Pankhurst, Richardâ
Ethiopia and Eritrea: the last phase of the Reunion Struggle 1941â1952
, The Walthamstow Press Ltd, 1953
Pateman, Royâ
Eritrea: Even the Stones are Burning
, The Red Sea Press, 1988
Prouty, Chris and Rosenfeld, Eugeneâ
Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia and Eritrea
, Scarecrow Press, 1993
Pugh, Martinâ
The Pankhursts
, Penguin, 2001
Romandini, Massimoâ
Visita a Dogali
, L'Universo LXI 3, 1981
Romandini, Massimoâ
Le Comunicazioni Stradali, Ferroviarie e Marittime dell'Eritrea durante il Governatorato Martini
, Africa (Rivista Trimestrale di Studi e Documentazion dell'Istituto Italo-Africano), Anno XXXVIIIâNo 1
Sbacchi, Albertoâ
Legacy of Bitterness, Ethiopia and Fascist Italy, 1935â1941
, The Red Sea Press, 1997
Segre, Vittorioâ
La guerra privata di tenente Guillet
, TEA, 1997
Tesfagiorgis, Abebaâ
A Painful Season and a Stubbon Hope: The Odyssey of an Eritrean Mother
, The Red Sea Press, 1992
Ullendorff, Edwardâ
The Ethiopians
, Oxford University Press, 1965
Discretion is a quality dear to Eritreans. Few, I know, would want to be publicly thanked in these pages. But those who welcomed me into their homes, accompanied me on my trips, pointed me in interesting directions and alerted me to my errors know who they are. I am enormously grateful.
Apart from my editor, Mitzi Angel, and literary agents Pat Kavanagh and Joy Harris, I owe special thanks to Clive Priddle, who originally commissioned the book and maintained his interest in the project long after moving on. My mother helped by reading through all of Martini's Eritrean diaries, my father meticulously edited the text, my sister Jessica provided weekend respite, my brother-in-law Julian kept my computer running.
I have tapped the intellectual riches of many experts. In Addis Ababa, Richard and Rita Pankhurst were generous with their insights and Teshome Bokan Gabre Mariam was kind enough to offer detailed comments on an early draft. Professor Massimo Romandini, probably the world's leading expert on Martini, was a wonderful correspondent, Martin Plaut kept me up-to-date with current events on the Horn, Nick Lera and Jennie Street told me what was what on the railway.
During my research trips I relied on the hospitality of many: Caroline Lees and Alan Macdonald in Asmara, Judith Matloff in New York, Peter Whaley in Washington and the Ostrovskys and Frys in Moscow deserve particular mention. Thanks are also due to the Kagnew veterans who welcomed me to one of their reunions in Florida and to Zazz, Zio Bob and Tom Indelicato for their running commentary on early drafts and life in general.
John Caveney, researcher at the
Financial Times
, was a wonderful asset and Olga Shevtsova, the
Times
' fixer in Moscow, saved me from confusion. The Society of Authors helped by paying for one of my many trips to Eritrea.
Having already dedicated one book to Michael Holman, I won't repeat myself, but he was the reason why, Against All Odds and Never Kneeling Down, I finished the book.
Abyssinia,
see
Ethiopia
Ad Shirum pass
Adamishin, Anatoly
Adua, battle of
Adulis
Afabet, battle of
Afwerki, Isaias 9, 15, 19â21, 360; and border war
crackdown on opponents
EPLF leader
OAU address
personality
as President
UN address
unpopularity
Aklilou Habte Wold 158; execution
as Foreign Minister
Prime Minister
Alula, Ras
Aman Andom, Gen
Andropov, Yuri
Annan, Kofi
Arab-Israeli War
Arabs
Ark of the Covenant
Army Security Agency
Ascari
Asfa Wohen, Crown Prince of Ethiopia
Asmara x, 1â7, 11, 13, 57, 216; architecture
in Badme war
British administration
cemetery
Ethiopian brutality in
Italians in
GIs in
guerrilla operations in
liberation
political riots
racial segregation
reconstruction
University
Western consulates closed
in World War II
Asmerom
Assab
Axum
Axumite empire
Badme
Bairu, Tedla
Baldissera, Gen. Antonio
Banda, Hastings
Barre, Siad
Belgium
Berakis, John
Berhe, Solomon
Berlin Manifesto
Besik Dira
Bono, Gen. Emilio de
Brezhnev, Leonid
Britain 64, 65, 103, 149; aid 420n;
Army
asset-stripping
colonies
Foreign Office
Military Administration
and postwar Eritrea
recognises Italian Ethiopia
World War II
Boundary Commission
Cagnassi, Eteocle
Carnimeo, Gen. Nicola
Carter, Jimmy
Churchill, Winston
Cicoria, Filippo
Cochrane, Peter
Cohen, Herman
Cold War
Congo
Cordier, Andrew 163, 168, 190â1,
Corio, Silvio
Cornaggia, Count Gherardo
Crispi, Francesco
Crocker, Chester
Cuba
Dahlak Islands
Danakil 2, 103â5, 149
Derg
civilian government
end of
Eritrean war
military committee
purges
relations with Soviet Union
relations with US
Dimbleby, Richard
Di Rudini, Antonio
Djibouti
Dogali
Dulles, John Foster
Dymond, Bob
Eden, Anthony
Egypt
Eisenhower, Dwight D 270
ELF (Eritrean Liberation Front)
civil war with EPLF
fedayeen operations
hit men
Isaias in
liberation struggle
supporters
EPLF (Eritrean People's LiberationFront)
authoritarianism
Christians in
and coup attempt
democracy in
dissolution
Fighters
finances
guerrilla operations
liberation struggle
manqa
episode
medical facilities
and OAU
peace talks
purges
relations with ELF
relations with superpowers
relations with TPLF
in Sahel
supporters
and UN
women in
Ergetu, Major Gen. Teshome
Eritrea: annexation 153, 181, 182â6; anti-Unionists
army
Badme war
Baito (Assembly)
constitution
currency
economy
Ethiopian atrocities in
as Ethiopian province
exiles
Federation
foreign relations
geography
independence proposal
as Italian colony
naming of
national character
national identity
partition proposal
political parties
post-independence
postwar destiny
railway
referendum
ropeway
Utopian vision of
in World War II
Eritrean Peoples Legal
Representatives Abroad
Ethiopia
aid
air force
annexes Eritrea
asset-stripping in Eritrea
Badme war
British administration
Christianity
claim to Eritrea
constitution
coup attemps
deports Eritreans
Derg regime
emperors
Eritrean war of independence
famines
Federation with Eritrea
foundation myth
history
isolation
as Italian colony
Marxist state
military aid
military significance
nationalism
peace
Ethiopiaâ
cont.
talks with Eritrea
peace treaty with Somalia
and postwar Eritrea
postwar future of
relations with Eritrea
relations with Israel
relations with Soviets
relations with US
TPLF government
UN Commission in
in World War II
Ethiopian Airlines
Ethiopian Army
atrocities in Eritrea
attempted coups
in Eritrean war
demoralisation
Derg officers
medievalism
modernization and expansion
Soviet advisers
Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF)
Falashas
Fascism
Ford, Gerald
Four Powers Commission
France
colonies
Freeman, Peter
Frusci, Gen. Luigi
Gander Dower, Kenneth
Garcia Bauer, Carlos
Gebreyohannes,
see
Tesfamariam Germany
Ghinda
Gonder
Gorbachev, Mikhail
Gromyko, Andrei
Group of
Gura
Hagos, Mesfin
Haile Selassie, Emperor
absolutism
annexation of Eritrea
coup and assassination attempts
death
exile
ethnic origins
and Federation
and OAU
in old age
personality and appearance
and postwar Eritrea
as reactionary
relations with Soviet
Union
relations with US
tomb
white advisers
Hamasien plateau
Hitler, Adolf
Horn of Africa
British policy
Cold War in
Italy and
Soviet military aid
Howe, Robert
Imperial Federal Council
Indelicato, Tom
Independence Bloc
International Ethiopian Council
Isaias Afwerki,
see
Afwerki
Islam
Israel
Italy: Abyssinian war (1896)
army
colonies
Fascism
inquiry into Eritrean atrocities
invades Ethiopia
invades
Libya
Italian Eritrea
Italian Ethiopia
and postwar Eritrea
racial laws
Risorgimento
Treaty of
Peace (1946)
World Wars
Kagnew Station
EPLF move into
function of
guerrilla actions against
personnel
run-down and closure
Kamchiwa
Kassala
Kaunda, Kenneth
Kebra Negast
Kenyatta, Jomo
Keren
battle of
Kerr, Colin
Kissinger, Henry
Korean War
League of Nations
Leopold, King of the Belgians
Libya
Live Aid
Livraghi, Dario
Longrigg, Brig. Stephen
Lorenzini, Gen. Orlando
Lumumba, Patrice
McKay, Lawrence D âSpook'
manqa
episode 385â6, 420n
Martini, Ferdinando
Il Diario Eritreo
and Eritrean railway
governor of Eritrea
Nell'Affrica Italiana
racism
vice-chairman of royal inquiry
Massawa
asset-stripping
atrocities in
as Italian capital
in liberation war
modernization of
port
reconstruction
World War II
Matienzo, Eduardo Anze
Mbeki, Moeletsi
Mekelle
Meles Zenawi,
see
Zenawi Menelik I, Emperor of Ethiopia
Menelik II, Emperor of Ethiopia
treaty with Italy
Mengistu Haile Mariam: agricultural reform
and armed forces
character
coup attempt against
as Derg officer
and Eritrean war
ethnic origins
flees Ethiopia
personality cult
Mengistu Haile Mariamâ
cont.
purges
relations with Israel
relations with Soviet
Union
relations with US
socialism
treatment of Emperor's remains
Messai, Andargachew
Metras, Mike
Mobutu, Sese Seko
Moslem League
Munzinger, Werner
Mussolini, Benito
Nakfa
National Security Agency (US)
New Times and Ethiopia News
Nixon, Richard
Nkrumah, Kwame
Ogaden
Organisation of African Unity
Orota
Palestine
Pankhurst, Christabel
Pankhurst, Emmeline
Pankhurst, Richard
Pankhurst, Sylvia xi
People's Front for Democracy and Justice (PFDJ)
Platt, Lt-Gen. Sir William
Provisional Military Administrative Council,
see
Derg
Qvale, Erling
Ras Tafari,
see
Haile Selassie Reagan, Ronald
Red Sea
Red Terror
Rommel, Erwin
Roosevelt, Franklin D
Rora mountains
Royal Air Force (RAF)
Rwanda
Sabaeans
Sahel
Sanchil, Mount
Sapeto, Giuseppe
Schmidt, Petrus
Selassie, Dr Bereket 123, 381, 385,
Seyoum, Melles
Shamir, Yitzhak
Sheba, Queen of
Sherifo, Mahmoud
Shevardnadze, Eduard
Shubin, Vladimir
Sinitsyn, Sergei
Sokurov, Major Yevgeny
Solomon, King
Solomon, Petros
Somalia
Greater Somalia
Italian
Ogaden
war
relations with superpowers
threat to Ethiopia
Somaliland
Soviet Union
diplomatic overtures to EPLF
economic decline
military advisers
military aid
relations with Ethiopia
and Somalia
urges political settlement in
Eritrea
Spencer, John
and Federation
on USâEthiopian relations
Stafford, Frank
Stalin, Joseph 320
Stanley, Henry
Strand, Dave
Sudan
Suez Canal
Tariku Ayne, Gen
Tekle, Abraham
Tesfagiorgis, Paulos
Tesfai, Alemseged
Tesfamariam, Gebreyohannes
Tewodros II, Emperor of Ethiopia
Thesiger, Wilfred
Tigray
Tigrayan People's Liberation Front (TPLF)
in government
relations with EPLF