Monoculture: How One Story is Changing Everything (15 page)

2. For more on the history of scientific knowledge, see Jerome R. Ravetz,
Scientific Knowledge and its Social Problems
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1971).

3. The commercialization of knowledge is described in Joshua B. Powers’ “Patents and Royalties,” In
Privatization and Public Universities
. Edited by Douglas M. Priest and Edward P. St. John (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2006), pp. 129-150.

4. For a succinct outline of Robert Merton’s four scientific norms, see Bruce Macfarlane and Ming Cheng, “Communism, Universalism and Disinterestedness: Re-examining Contemporary Support Among Academics for Merton’s Scientific Norms,”
Journal of Academic Ethics
, 6 (2008): 67-78.

5. Galileo’s statement about truth and science is found in Galileo Galilei,
Dialogue on the Great World Systems, The Salusbury Translation
. Edited by G. de Santillana, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1953), cited in Jerome R. Ravetz,
Scientific Knowledge and its Social Problems
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1971).

6. Jerome R. Ravetz,
Scientific Knowledge and its Social Problems
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1971).

7. Regarding the education services industry, in 2003, America’s non-profit higher education sector was made of almost 4,000 organizations representing roughly 1.4 million students and annual expenditures of over $200 billion. David W. Breneman, Brian Pusser, and Sarah E. Turner, “The Contemporary Provision of For-Profit Higher Education.” In
Earnings From Learning
. Edited by David W. Breneman, Brian Pusser, and Sarah E. Turner (New York: State University of New York Press, 2006), pp. 3-22.

8. “Arts Degrees ‘Reduce Earnings,’”
BBC News
, March 6, 2003.

9. Ibid.

10. Jason Tan, “The Marketisation of Education in Singapore: Policies and Implications,”
International Review of Education
44 (1998): 47-63; Ka-ho Mok, “Education and the Market Place in Hong Kong and Mainland China,”
Higher Education
37 (1999): 133-158; Yin Qiping, “The ‘Marketisation’ of Chinese Higher Education: A Critical Assessment,”
Comparative Education
, 30 (1994): 217-233.

11. Rising tuition rates for professional programs in Canada is highlighted by Marc Frenette in “The Impact of Tuition Fees on University Access: Evidence From a Large-Scale Price Deregulation in Professional Programs,”
Statistics Canada
11F0019MIE - Number 263 (2005).

12. For more on changes in financial aid, see Sean Junor and Alex Usher, “The End of Need-Based Student Financial Aid in Canada?”
Educational Policy Institute
(2007); “Canadian Millennium Scholarship Foundation,” Brief Submitted to The House of Commons Standing Committee on Finance 2006 Pre-Budget Consultations.

13. Douglas M. Priest and Edward P. St. John,
Privatization and Public Universities
(Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2006).

14. Simon Marginson, “National and Global Competition in Higher Education,”
Australian Educational Researcher
31 (2004): 1-28.

15. Sally Power and Geoff Whitty, “Teaching New Subjects? The Hidden Curriculum of Marketized Education Systems.” Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Chicago, Illinois, March 24-28, 1997.

16. Michael Pearce, “The Marketization of Discourse About Education in UK General Election Manifestos,” Text 24 (2004): 245-265; Ingolfur Asgeir Johannesson, Sverker Lindblad, and Hannu Simola, “An Inevitable Progress? Educational Restructuring in Finland, Iceland, and Sweden at the Turn of the Millennium,”
Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research
46 (2002): 325-339; Izhar Oplatka, Jane Hesley-Brown, and Nick H. Foskett, “The Voice of Teachers in Marketing Their School: Personal Perspectives in Competitive Environments,”
School Leadership & Management
22 (2002): 177-196.

17. Brian Pusser, “Higher Education, Markets, and the Preservation of the Public Good.” In
Earnings From Learning
. Edited by David W. Breneman, Brian Pusser, and Sarah E. Turner (New York: State University of New York Press, 2006), pp. 23-49; Kathryn Hibbert and Luigi Iannacci, “From Dissemination to Discernment: The Commodification of Literacy Instruction and the Fostering of Good Teacher Consumerism,”
Reading Teacher
58 (2005): 716-727; Susan Wright, “Markets, Corporations, Consumers? New Landscapes of Higher Education,”
Learning & Teaching in the Social Sciences
1 (2004): 71-93; Ka-ho Mok, “Education and the Market Place in Hong Kong and Mainland China,”
Higher Education
37 (1999): 133-158.

18. For an excellent and early overview of the spread and influence of the market in higher education, see Sheila Slaughter and Gary Rhoades,
Academic Capitalism and the New Economy
(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004).

19. Douglas M. Priest and Rachel Dykstra Boon, “Incentive-based Budgeting Systems in the Emerging Environment.” In
Earnings From Learning
. Edited by David W. Breneman, Brian Pusser, and Sarah E. Turner (New York: State University of New York Press, 2006), pp. 175-188.

20. The statistical decline in tenure and tenure-track faculty positions is found in the 2006 Contingent Faculty Index, put out by the American Association of University Professors, cited in Peter Conn, “We Need to Acknowledge the Realities of Employment in the Humanities,”
The Chronicle Review,
April 4, 2010.

21. Marc Bousquet outlines how job security in academia has been impacted by marketization in his book
How the University Works: Higher Education and the Low-Wage Nation
(New York: New York University Press, 2008).

22. Marc Bousquet,
How the University Works: Higher Education and the Low-Wage Nation
(New York: New York University Press, 2008). See also Sheila Slaughter and Larry L. Leslie,
Academic Capitalism: Politics, Policies, and the Entrepreneurial University
(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997).

23. The rise of economic language in academia is described by Fazal Rizvi, “The Ideology of Privatization in Higher Education: A Global Perspective.” In
Earnings From Learning
. Edited by David W. Breneman, Brian Pusser, and Sarah E. Turner (New York: State University of New York Press, 2006), pp. 65-84; Peter Roberts, “The Future of the University: Reflections from New Zealand,”
International Review of Education
45 (1999): 65-86; Ka-ho Mok, “The Cost of Managerialism: The Implications for the ‘McDonaldisation’ of Higher Education in Hong Kong,”
Journal of Higher Education Policy
21 (1999): 117-127.

24. Jerome R. Ravetz,
Scientific Knowledge and its Social Problems
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1971).

25. Ibid.

26. On knowledge commercialization and science and industry partnerships, see, for example, Eyal Press and Jennifer Washburn, “The Kept University,”
Atlantic Monthly
285 (2000): 39-53; David Blumenthal, Eric G. Campbell, NancyAnne Causino, and Karen Seashore Louis, “Participation of Life-Science Faculty in Research Relationships with Industry,”
New England Journal of Medicine
335 (1996): 1734-1739.

27. Eric G. Campbell, Joshua B. Powers, David Blumenthal, and Brian Biles, “Inside the Triple Helix: Technology Transfer and Commercialization in the Life Sciences,”
Health Affairs
23 (2004): 64-76. Today, most commercialization activity happens in the biosciences. In 2001, almost half of academic patents in the U.S. were from the life sciences in chemistry, molecular biology, and microbiology, up from 15 percent in 1980.

28. On the salary gap between business schools and the humanities, see James Engell and Anthony Dangerfield, “The Market-Model University: Humanities in the Age of Money,”
Harvard Alumni Magazine
(May/June 1998).

29. See, for example, Robert N. Watson’s “The Humanities Really Do Produce a Profit,”
Chronicle of Higher Education
, March 21, 2010.

30. John Mursell,
Principles of Democratic Education
(New York: W.W. Norton, 1955).

31. Clifford Geertz,
Available Light
(Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000).

Additional Sources

The first epigraph, a quote from then-93-year-old Sophie Mumford, is found in Studs Terkel’s
Coming of Age
(New York: New Press, 1995).

John Lombardi is quoted in Marc Bousquet’s
How the University Works: Higher Education and the Low-Wage Nation
(New York: New York University Press, 2008).

8. Your Creativity

1. For a wonderful overview of the history of the idea of art, see Larry Shiner’s
The Invention of Art: A Cultural History
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001).

2. Ibid.

3. The Louvre in Paris opened in 1973 with art that had been confiscated from the monarchy and the aristocracy during the French Revolution. See Larry Shiner,
The Invention of Art: A Cultural History
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001).

4. Eric Moody, “Politics and Museums.” In
Museums 2000: Politics, People, Professionals, and Profit
. Edited by Patrick J. Boylan (London: Routledge, 1992).

5. The relationship between the artist and the market is described by Lee Hye-Kyung in “When Arts Met Marketing,”
International Journal of Cultural Policy
11 (2005): 289-305.

6. Hugh Honour,
Romanticism
(London: Allen Lane, 1979); Larry Shiner,
The Invention of Art: A Cultural History
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001).

7. On our relationship with museums, see Russell Keat,
Cultural Goods and the Limits of the Market
(London: MacMillan Press, 2000); Linda Moss, “Encouraging Creative Enterprise in Russia.” In
Entrepreneurship in the Creative Industries: An International Perspective
. Edited by Colette Henry, (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 2007), pp. 142-158; Stephen Weil,
Rethinking the Museum
(Washington: Smithsonian, 1990), p. xviii.

8. Stephen Weil,
Beauty and the Beasts: On Museums, Art, the Law, and the Market
(Washington: Smithsonian, 1983).

9. Ibid.

10. Stephen Weil,
Rethinking the Museum
(Washington: Smithsonian, 1990).

11. Perry T. Rathbone, “Influences of Private Patrons: The Art Museum as an Example.” In
The Arts and Public Policy in the United States
. Edited by W. McNeil Lowry (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1984); Stanley N. Katz, “Influences on Public Policies in the United States.” In
The Arts and Public Policy in the United States
. Edited by W. McNeil Lowry (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1984); W. McNeil Lowry, “Introduction.” In
The Arts and Public Policy in the United States
. Edited by W. McNeil Lowry (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1984); Perry T. Rathbone, “Influences of Private Patrons: The Art Museum as an Example.” In
The Arts and Public Policy in the United States.
Edited by W. McNeil Lowry (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1984); Stephen Weil,
Beauty and the Beasts: On Museums, Art, the Law, and the Market
(Washington: Smithsonian, 1983).

12. John F. Kennedy’s quote about the arts is found in “A Symposium: Issues in the Emergence of Public Policy.” In
The Arts and Public Policy in the United States
. Edited by W. McNeil Lowry (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1984).

13. Larry Shiner,
The Invention of Art: A Cultural History
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001). What is considered high or low culture changes over time. High culture in one era is pop culture in another. In the 1700s, for example, chamber music was considered pop culture.

14. Stephen Weil,
Beauty and the Beasts: On Museums, Art, the Law, and the Market
(Washington: Smithsonian, 1983).

15. W. McNeil Lowry, “Introduction.” In
The Arts and Public Policy in the United States
. Edited by W. McNeil Lowry (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1984).

16. Stephen Weil,
Beauty and the Beasts: On Museums, Art, the Law, and the Market
(Washington: Smithsonian, 1983); “A Symposium: Issues in the Emergence of Public Policy.” In
The Arts and Public Policy in the United States
. Edited by W. McNeil Lowry (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1984).

17. The definition of the creative industries from The Hong Kong Centre for Cultural Policy Research, University of Hong Kong, is found in “Baseline Study on Hong Kong’s Creative Industries,” The Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, September 2003.

18. For more on the creative industries, including their meteoric growth and worth, see
Entrepreneurship in the Creative Industries: An International Perspective
. Edited by Colette Henry (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 2007).

19. Colette Henry, “Introduction.” In
Entrepreneurship in the Creative Industries: An International Perspective
. Edited by Colette Henry (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 2007), pp. 1-6. Note that it’s difficult to compare the creative industries from country to country because nations use different definitions and data sources; National Endowment for Science, Technology and the Arts, “Creating Growth: How the UK Can Develop World Class Creative Businesses,” April 2006.

20. Calvin Taylor, “Developing Relationships Between Higher Education, Enterprise and Innovation in the Creative Industries.” In
Entrepreneurship in the Creative Industries: An International Perspective
. Edited by Colette Henry (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 2007), pp. 178-196; Paul J. DiMaggio, “The Nonprofit Instrument and the Influence of the Marketplace on Policies in the Arts.” In
The Arts and Public Policy in the United States
. Edited by W. McNeil Lowry (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1984); “A Symposium: Issues in the Emergence of Public Policy.” In
The Arts and Public Policy in the United States
. Edited by W. McNeil Lowry (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1984).