On the Nature of the Universe (Oxford World’s Classics) (63 page)

35
strange shapes and phantoms of the dead
: Lucretius takes pains to relate the subject matter of
Book 4
to that of the preceding book: cf. 1. 132 ff.

41
I say therefore
: as the manuscript text stands, we seem to have more than one version of the summary of the opening section of
Book 4
. Some believe we have traces of alternative beginnings for the book, one dating from a time when
Book 4
followed on directly from
Book 2
, others that the text has been corrupted in transmission. The translation excises lines 45–50, and transposes line 44 after 53. Epicurus deals with the basic theory of images in
Letter to Herodotus
46: cf. also frr. 317, 320. They were the principal subject of
Book 2
of his major work
On Nature
.

76
Spread over a great theatre
: temporary wooden theatres had been common at Rome from early days, and a particularly elaborate one had been erected in 58
BC
by M. Aemilius Scaurus when aedile (Pliny (first century
BC
),
Natural Histories
36. 114), but the first readers of
On the Nature of the Universe
would have been able to experience Rome’s first stone theatre, built by Pompey in 55
BC
. The sun awnings were spread from large masts, holes for which can still be seen in extant Roman theatres, and there was considerable competition amongst politicians to provide the most impressive arrangements (cf. Pliny,
Natural Histories
19. 23).

98
In mirrors
: the phenomena of reflection were of constant interest to ancient scientists, mathematicians, and philosophers: cf. 150 ff., 269 ff. below, and especially Diogenes of Oenoanda fr. 9. 1. 4–12.

126 There are clearly some lines missing at this point in the manuscripts, although it is uncertain how many, and what they dealt with.

131
of their own accord | Come into being
: the mingling of images in the air to produce new forms (cf. Epicurus,
Letter to Herodotus
46, 48) explains how we can think of non-existent objects such as Centaurs, as Lucretius later explains (724 ff.). The figures seen in clouds are a similar chance phenomenon: Lucretius also uses the comparison to suggest the airy unreality of mythological stories such as the battle of giants and gods.

143
how easily and swiftly | These images arise
: cf. Epicurus,
Letter to Herodotus
48.

173
black face of fear
: cf. 1. 64 ff. 170–3 are repeated at 6. 251–4.

176
how fast these images move
: again, cf.
Letter to Herodotus
48.

181
Better the swan’s brief song
: Lucretius translates part of an epigram by the Hellenistic poet Antipater of Sidon (second century
BC
:
Greek Anthology
7. 7. 13), drawing again on the imagery of small-scale precision associated with the aesthetics of the poet Callimachus (see above on 1. 926—the lines repeated at the beginning of this book).

217
the bodies which strike our eyes
: there may be further textual disruption at this point, with more lines lost.

230
a shape that is handled in the dark
: there was considerable debate in antiquity about the notion of what Aristotle called the ‘common sensibles’, things like shape perceived by more than one sense: cf. e.g. Aristotle,
On the Soul
418
^a
6 ff., 425
^a
15 ff.

297
a mask | Of plaster
: theatrical masks were made of linen and plaster.

332
People with jaundice see everything yellow
: the effect of disease on perception was one of the arguments used by sceptics against the reliability of the senses (cf. Sextus Empiricus (second century
AD
),
Outlines of Pyrrhonism
1. 101, the fourth ‘trope’ of the sceptic Aenesidemus (first century
BC
): see below on 469). Lucretius’ focus in this section on miscellaneous problems of vision is increasingly on the problems raised by sceptical attacks.

338
black air of darkness
: the Epicurean conception of darkness as a sort of thick, black air that is cleaned out by light is relevant to Lucretius’ extensive imagery of light and dark.

353
square towers of a city
: a famous Epicurean example, much discussed (cf. e.g. Diogenes or Oenoanda fr. 69, Petronius (first century
AD
) fr. 29, Sextus Empiricus,
Against the Professors
7. 208, Plutarch (first–second century
AD
),
Against Colotes
25 1121a).

386
Do not then blame the eyes for this fault of the mind
: the Epicureans famously held that ‘all sensations were true’ (fr. 247): the precise sense of this is disputed, but they made a clear distinction between the presentation offered by the senses and our judgement of the presentation. Error was always in ‘the addition of opinion’ (
Letter to Herodotus
50, cf. below 462 ff.): we should ‘wait’ until we can get a ‘clear’ perception before dogmatizing about the nature of an object (cf.
Master Sayings
24).

387
A ship we sail in moves
: a stock example of optical illusion, cf. Cicero,
Academica
2. 81,
On Ends
2. 58. There are parallels in sceptical writings to many of Lucretius’ examples here: see J. Annas and J. Barnes,
The Modes of Scepticism
(Cambridge, 1985).

453
sleep
: significantly, Lucretius’ last example of illusion deals with dreaming, a major concern of
Book 4
.

465
notions of the mind | Which we ourselves bring to them
: translating Epicurus,
Letter to Herodotus
50; see above on 386.

469
if someone thinks | That nothing is known
: although sceptical arguments appear in earlier philosophers such as Protagoras (fifth century
BC
) and Democritus (who was criticized on these grounds by Epicureans), the first thoroughgoing sceptic was Pyrrho (fourth–third century
BC
). Arcesilaus (fourth–third century
BC
), the fourth head of the Platonic Academy, turned it towards scepticism: in the first century
BC
it returned to holding positive doctrines, while Aenesidemus revived Pyrrhonism. Our major source of sceptic doctrine is the writings of the later sceptic Sextus Empiricus (second
century
AD
). Not all sceptics accepted that nothing could be known: some suspended judgement even about that proposition. Epicurean arguments against scepticism are criticized especially in Plutarch’s treatise
Against Colotes
(Colotes (third–fourth century
BC
) was a disciple of Epicurus who wrote a work
That it is not possible even to live according to the doctrines of the other philosophers
).

472 ff.
Who has put his head where his feet ought to be
: Lucretius actualizes Greek terms for self-refuting argument such as
peritrope
or ‘turning upside-down’ (cf. Epicurus fr. 34. 28. 1 ff. Arrighetti).

508
Life itself also would at once collapse
: the ‘inactivity’ argument that sceptics cannot live their scepticism, used for example by Colotes (see above on 469 ff.: cf. e.g. Cicero,
Academica
2. 37 ff.).

513
if the ruler is crooked
: Lucretius alludes to the Greek term
kanon
, literally a straight-edged rule but used for the criterion of truth by Epicurus (a lost work of whom was called
Kanon
) and other philosophers. Lucretius elaborates the metaphor into one of a building being constructed on secure foundations, which brings it into contact with a broader metaphorical field within
On the Nature of the Universe
: Epicurean security is contrasted with disorder and destruction.

524
every sound and voice is heard
: cf. Epicurus,
Letter to Herodotus
52–3, frr. 321–3.

529
Roughens the windpipe
: Lucretius plays on the Greek technical term for the windpipe,
tracheia arteria
(
trachea
in modern anatomical Latin):
tracheia
means ‘rough’ in Greek.

537
a speech that lasts from the first gleam of dawn
: the reference is especially to political speeches in the Senate, where sessions lasted from dawn to dusk and there was no time limit under the Republic.

564
a cryer
: ‘cryers’ (
praecones
) were used on several different occasions at Rome, but the language here suggests especially the opening of a public meeting (
comitia
).

580
Nymphs and goat-footed satyrs
: the description follows a familiar Lucretian pattern, with a poetic evocation of the sort of rural piety often associated with early humanity (cf. 5. 1379 ff.) capped by the cynical observation of 594 ‘mankind | Is greedy aye for things that please the ear’ (i.e. eager to have an audience).

615
taste
: Epicurus does not deal with taste in the corresponding section of the
Letter to Herodotus
, since (like touch) it is not accomplished through images. Lucretius, however, includes it, since it provided sceptics with a series of important arguments against the veracity of the senses (cf. Sextus Empiricus,
Outlines of Pyrrhonism
1. 52–8, 101 etc.; Plutarch,
Against Colotes
1109b ff.). 246
Notes to pp. 119–24

638
the snake
: cf. Aristotle,
History of Animals
607
^a
29 ff., Pliny,
Natural Histories
7. 2. 15.

672
A thing which I have explained to you before
: cf. 2. 398 ff., 3. 191 ff.

673
smell
: cf. Epicurus,
Letter to Herodotus
53.

683
that saved Rome’s citadel
: the sacred geese on the Capitol were said to have revealed a night attack by Gauls in 387
BC
(cf. Livy 5. 47).

706
Nor yet is this confined to smells and tastes
: i.e. variability between different perceivers, as in 633 ff. (taste) and 677 ff. (smell).

712
Before him ravening lions cannot stand
: cf. Sextus Empiricus,
Outlines of Pyrrhonism
1. 58. Democritus was one of those who were said (perhaps falsely) to have described the supposed phenomenon.

722
what things move the mind
: thought for the Epicureans was explained in almost exactly the same way as perception (cf. Epicurus fr. 317): the mind is continuously bombarded by images flying around, though it ‘sees’ only those on which it chooses to focus. Cf. Epicurus,
Letter to Herodotus
49–51, Diogenes of Oenoanda frr. 9–10.

726
meet in the air
: cf. 131 ff. above.

740
no such animal did ever exist
: cf. 5. 878 ff.

746
As I showed before
: in 726, unless the reference is back to 131 ff.

757
When sleep has laid out the limbs
: cf. Diogenes of Oenoanda fr. 9.

773
The former seems to have changed its attitude
: as has often been noted, Lucretius anticipates the principle of cinematography.

795
one instant of time that we perceive
: the Epicureans believed in minimal units of time and space (see above on 1. 601–2), far below the level of perception. In each perceptible time-unit, therefore, there are countless numbers of minimal time-units that can be apprehended only by reason. Cf. Epicurus,
Letter to Herodotus
47.

816
from small signs we draw great inferences
: the process of ‘addition of opinion’ to sensory or mental perception: see above on 4. 386.

825–6
Do not suppose that the clear light of the eyes | Was made that we might see
: ‘teleological’ explanation of parts of the body in terms of their purpose or end (in Greek
telos
) is found in Greek thought from early on: it is parodied in Aristophanes’ comedy
Women at the Thesmophoria
(411
BC
: 14–18), and Xenophon puts a striking example into the mouth of Socrates in his
Memorabilia
(1. 4. 5). Plato also has a notable example in the
Timaeus
(44d ff.). This sort of explanation was associated with Aristotle and his notion of ‘final cause’ (see especially the treatise
On Parts of Animals
) but found also amongst Stoics, particularly in connection with the notion of divine providence, and enthusiastically taken up by Christian writers, for whom the body of man was a wonder of divine creation (cf. e.g. Cicero,
On
the Nature of the Gods
2. 133 ff., Nemesius (
c
.400
AD
),
On the Nature of Man
). Even today, apparently teleological statements are often used as shorthand for the process of natural selection or random mutation in evolution.

848
to give the wearied body rest
: Lucretius anticipates the account of human development to be given in
Book 5
, and insinuates a moral point: in the beginning man got by without soft beds (cf. 2. 29 ff.).

859
Every animal seeks food
: the emphasis is on the desire for food as a mental process with a bodily explanation.

877–8
how it is that we walk |… when we wish
: Lucretius explains here not how we come to wish to walk (cf. 2. 251 ff.), but how the wish is transformed into action.

883
Hence follows will
: images are all the while striking the mind, but until we decide to concentrate on a particular set they are not present to consciousness. The interpretation of this passage is controversial, but the act of will seems to be identified with his act of concentration, which sets in train the process of movement.

907
sleep
: sleep is a puzzling phenomenon, much discussed by ancient (and modern) scientists and philosophers: see especially the treatise
On Sleep and Waking
included in the so-called ‘Parva Naturalia’ of Aristotle (453
^b
ff.). For the Epicurean view, compare the comment preserved in
Letter to Herodotus
66 (fr. 311), and fr. 325, with Diogenes of Oenoanda fr. 9.