Pox (64 page)

11
Hall quoted in “News and Other Gleanings,”
Friends' Intelligencer
, Mar. 4, 1899, 180.

12
Rudyard Kipling, “The Tomb of His Ancestors,” in
The Writings in Prose and Verse of Rudyard Kipling
(New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1899), vol. 13:
The Day's Work
, 128, 170. “Vaccination in India,”
BRMJ
, Jun. 3, 1899, 1341. Kipling, “White Man's Burden.” On the idealism and violence of colonial public health, see Dipesh Chakrabarty, “Postcoloniality and the Artifice of History: Who Speaks for ‘Indian' Pasts?” in
Contemporary Postcolonial Theory: A Reader
, ed. Padmini Mongia (Delhi: Edward Arnold, 1997), 242–43.

13
“Taft Declares Americans Lead in Disease Fight,”
PI
, May 5, 1911, 1. For a lucid conceptual discussion of U.S. colonialism in the Philippines, see Julian Go, “Introduction: Global Perspectives on the U.S. Colonial State in the Philippines,” in
The American Colonial State in the Philippines: Global Perspectives
, ed. Julian Go and Anne L. Foster (Durham, NC: Duke University Press Books, 2003), 1–42.

14
“Taft Declares Americans Lead.” John E. Snodgrass, “Sanitary Achievements in the Philippine Islands, 1898–1915,” Part 1 in
Sanitary Achievements in the Philippines, 1898–1915; Smallpox Vaccination in the Philippine Islands, 1898–1914; Leprosy in the Philippine Islands
(Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1915). See Christopher Capozzola, “Empire as a Way of Life: Gender, Culture, and Power in New Histories of U.S. Imperialism,”
Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era
, 1 (2002): 364–74; Ann Laura Stoler, “Tense and Tender Ties: The Politics of Comparison in North American History and (Post) Colonial Studies,”
Journal of American History
, 88 (2001): 829–65; and Robert J. McMahon, “Cultures of Empire,” ibid.: 888–92.

15
“Origin and Spread of Typhoid Fever in the United States Army during the Spanish War,”
MR
, 59 (Jan. 19, 1901), 98.

16
“School of Tropical Medicine,”
DMN
, Feb. 5, 1899, 8. Reprinted from
BS
. See Roy Porter,
The Greatest Benefit to Mankind: A Medical History of Humanity
(New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1997), 462–92. For a marvelous analysis of the anxieties involved in U.S. colonial medicine in the Philippines, see Warwick Anderson, “The Trespass Speaks: White Masculinity and Colonial Breakdown,”
American Historical Review
, 102 (1997): 1343–70.

17
Azel Ames, M.D., “Compulsory Vaccination Essential. The Example of Porto Rico,”
MN
, Apr. 19, 1902, 722. James C. Scott has argued that a central challenge of modern states is “to make a society legible, to arrange the population in ways that simplified the classic state functions of taxation, conscription, and prevention of rebellion.” This process was particularly important in colonial spaces, such as the U.S.-controlled Philippines, where the terrain and its people were at first so little known to the colonizers. James C. Scott,
Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed
(New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), 2.

18
On public health and police power, see esp. William J. Novak,
The People's Welfare: Law and Regulation in Nineteenth-Century America
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996), 191–233. See also Lawrence O. Gostin,
Public Health Law: Power, Duty, Restraint
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000); James A. Tobey,
Public Health Law
.

19
When the global eradication campaign came in the 1960s and 1970s, it was to be an enormous international effort, overseen by the World Health Organization, with the United States playing one of several leading roles. See Ian Glynn and Jenifer Glynn,
The Life and Death of Smallpox
; D. A. Henderson,
Smallpox.

20
Whitman quoted in Ira M. Rutkow,
Bleeding Blue and Gray: Civil War Surgery and the Evolution of American Medicine
(New York: Random House, 2005), 232; see ibid., 217–18. George M. Sternberg, “Medical Department,” in
DODGECOM
, vol. 1, 179. Cirillo,
Bullets and Bacilli
, 20–30, esp. 30.

21
Dr. Carroll Dunham, “Medical and Sanitary Aspects of the War,”
American Monthly Review of Reviews
, 18 (October 1898), 417.
DODGECOM
, vol. 1, 265. Cirillo,
Bullets and Bacilli
, 32–33.

22
Roosevelt in “Military Surgeons Meet,”
NYT
, June 6, 1902, 6.
The Military Laws of the United States
, 4th ed. (Washington, 1901), 350–65. See Edgar Erskine Hume, “The United States Army Medical Department and Its Relation to Public Health,”
SCI
, new ser., 74 (1931): 465–76; and Mary C. Gillett,
The Army Medical Department, 1865–1917
(Washington: U.S. Army, 1995); Champe C. McCulloch, Jr., “The Scientific and Administrative Achievement of the Medical Corps of the United States Army,”
Scientific Monthly
, 4 (1917), 410–27.

23
George M. Sternberg,
A Text-Book of Bacteriology
, 2d ed. (1896; New York: William Wood and Company, 1901). Martha L. Sternberg,
George Miller Sternberg: A Biography
(Chicago: American Medical Association 1920). See Cirillo,
Bullets and Bacilli
, 20–30.

24
“Officers of the Medical Department of the Army shall not be entitled, by virtue of their rank, to command in the line or in other staff corps.”
Military Laws
, 353. Line officer quoted in Cirillo,
Bullets and Bacilli
, 4. Whitman quoted in M. Jimmie Killingsworth,
The Cambridge Introduction to Walt Whitman
(New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 9.

25
USMCSW
. For a very thoughtful treatment of this issue, see Warwick Anderson,
Colonial Pathologies: American Tropical Medicine, Race, and Hygiene in the Philippines
(Durham, NC: Duke University Press Books, 2006), 22–30.

26
DODGECOM
, vol. 1, 113, 169.

27
Hoff quoted in Anderson,
Colonial Pathologies
, 30. See Sternberg, “Medical Department,” 169–70, esp. 170; Sternberg in
DODGECOM
, vol. 1, 113.

28
Hoyt quoted in Anderson,
Colonial Pathologies
, 31. “Dr. Azel Ames Dead,”
BG
, Nov. 13, 1908, 8. “Groff, George G.,”
The National Cyclopaedia of American Biography
(New York: J. T. White, 1904), vol. XII: 301. Henry F. Hoyt, M.D., “Sanitation in St. Paul,” in
PHPR
, 14 (1888): 33–39. “Brevet Rank for Gallant Conduct,”
MR
, 61 (Mar. 29, 1902), 500.

29
C. P. Wertenbaker, “Investigation of Smallpox at Columbia and Sumter, S.C.,”
PHR
, 13 (May 2, 1898), 468–70.
USWDAR 1898
, 622.

30
Sternberg, “Medical Department,” 176.
DODGECOM
, vol. 5, 1684. John Van Rensselaer Hoff, “Experience of the Army with Vaccination as a Prophylactic Against Smallpox,”
Military Surgeon,
28 (1911), 498, 502.

31
USMCSW
, 167–93, esp. 178. “Origin and Spread of Typhoid Fever in the United States Army during the Spanish War,”
MR
, 59 (Jan. 19, 1901), 98.

32
“Horrors of Chickamauga,”
NYT
, Aug. 27, 1898, 3. “Camp Alger a Pest Hole,” ibid., Aug. 6, 1898, 2.
USMCSW
, 167–93, esp. 190. Cirillo,
Bullets and Bacilli
, 57–90.

33
“Shafter's Men to Flee from Fever,”
NYT
, Aug. 5, 1898, 7. See also, Nicholas Senn, “The Invasion of Porto Rico from a Medical Standpoint,”
MN
, 73 (Sept. 17, 1898), 369.

34
McKinley, in
DODGECOM
, vol. 1, 237.

35
Reed quoted in Gaines M. Foster, “The Demands of Humanity: Army Medical Disaster Relief ” (Washington, U.S. Army, 1983), ch. 3, p. 2,
http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/misc/disaster/default.htm
, accessed June 23, 2008. McCulloch, “Scientific and Administrative Achievement,” 414, 419. Cirillo,
Bullets and Bacilli
, 111–35. Smallman-Raynor and Cliff,
War Epidemics
, 370–96.

36
J. N. Taylor, “Cleansing Cities,”
BG
, Mar. 16, 1900, 3. Captain L. P. Davison, “Sanitary Work in Porto Rico,”
Independent
, Aug. 10, 1899, 2128, 2131. Foster, “Demands of Humanity,” ch. 3,p. 4. See Martin V. Melosi,
The Sanitary City: Urban Infrastructure in America from Colonial Times to the Present
(Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999).

37
USPC 1905
, Appendix A: “Report of the Commissioner of Public Health, Sept. 1, 1904, to August 31, 1905,” 72. Davison, “Sanitary Work,” 2131. See
USPC 1905
, 10.

38
Taylor, “Cleansing Cities.”

39
Smallman-Raynor and Cliff,
War Epidemics
, 625–39, 685. Matthew Smallman-Raynor and Andrew D. Cliff, “War and Disease: Some Perspectives on the Spatial and Temporal Occurrence of Tuberculosis in Wartime,” in
Return of the White Plague: Global Poverty and the “New” Tuberculosis
, ed. Matthew Grandy and Alimuddin Zumla (London: Verso, 2003), esp. 70–76.

40
Clara Barton,
The Red Cross: A History of This Remarkable International Movement in the Interest of Humanity
(Washington: American National Red Cross, 1898), 520. “Havana Now a Pest Hole,”
NYT
, May 29, 1898, 12. “Topics of the Times,” ibid
.
, Mar. 18, 1897, 6. “Smallpox Ravaging Cuba,” ibid
.
, Mar. 31, 1897, 2. “Big Conspiracy in Cuba,” ibid
.
, Jan. 1, 1898, 3.

41
Senn, “Invasion of Porto Rico,” 369, 370, 372.

42
De Bevoise,
Agents of Apocalypse
, ix, 8–44, esp. 18; Smallman-Raynor and Cliff,
War Epidemics
, 311.

43
De Bevoise,
Agents of Apocalypse,
41
.

44
Hoyt quoted in Anderson,
Colonial Pathologies
, 38–39; ibid., 31. See Senn, “Invasion of Puerto Rico,” 369.

45
John Van Rensselaer Hoff, “The Share of the ‘White Man's Burden' That Has Fallen to the Medical Departments of the Public Services in Puerto Rico,”
PMJ
, 5 (Apr. 7, 1900), 797. De Bevoise,
Agents of Apocalypse
, 43. Arnold, “Smallpox and Colonial Medicine,” 48.

46
McCulloch, “Scientific and Administrative Achievement,” 422. Mary C. Gillett, “U.S. Army Medical Officers and Public Health in the Philippines in the Wake of the Spanish-American War, 1898–1905,”
BHM
, 64 (1990), 567–81, esp. 581. Foster, “Demands of Humanity,” ch. 3, 4–5. See Davison, “Sanitary Work.”

47
John Van R. Hoff, “Report of the Superior Board of Health of Porto Rico,” June 30, 1900, in
USPRMG 1900
, 479.

48
Davison, “Sanitary Work,” 2130. George M. Sternberg, “Report of the Surgeon General,” in
USWDAR 1899, Reports of the Chiefs of Bureaus
, vol. 1, part 2: 597–98. P. Villoldo, “Smallpox and Vaccination in Cuba,” 1914 article reprinted in “Public Health Reports 2006 Supplement 1,”
PHR
, 121 (2006): 47–49. See also Foster, “Demands of Humanity,” ch. 3, 7–8; and Mariola Espinosa,
Epidemic Invasions: Yellow Fever and the Limits of Cuban Independence, 1878–1930
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009).

49
Hoff, “Share of the ‘White Man's Burden,' ” 797, 796.

50
James Robb Church, “John Van R. Hoff,”
Military Surgeon
(1920), 204–7. “Approves Hoff Memorial,”
NYT
, Jan. 26, 1931, 14. Gillett,
Army Medical Department
, 84–87, 197 note 15. See Jacob A. Riis,
Theodore Roosevelt, the Citizen
(New York: The Outlook Co., 1904).

51
Church, “John Van R. Hoff,” esp. 205. John Van Rensselaer Hoff, “Experience of the Army with Vaccination as a Prophylactic Against Smallpox,”
Military Surgeon
(1911), 492.

52
Gillett,
Army Medical Department
, 258. Hoff, “Experience of the Army with Vaccination,” 493. C. H. Alden, “Puerto Rico; Its Climate and Its Diseases,”
NYMJ
, 74 (1901), 21.

53
Alden, “Puerto Rico,” esp. 19. For a useful contemporary overview of the island, from the Army's perspective, see
USPRMG 1900
.

54
USPRMG 1900
, 26, 152. Alden, “Puerto Rico,” 19–22, esp. 19.
Report of Brig. Gen. Geo. W. Davis, U.S.V. on Civil Affairs of Puerto Rico 1899
(Washington,
1900
), 18.

55
Major Azel Ames, “Vaccination of Porto Rico—A Lesson to the World,”
Pacific Medical Journal
, 45 (1902), 518. Alden, “Puerto Rico,” 19.
USPRMG 1900,
94.

56
USPRMG 1900
, 19–20, 23, 26.
Downes v. Bidwell
, 182 U.S 244 (1901). See Robert McGreevey, “Borderline Citizens: Puerto Ricans and the Politics of Migration, Race, and Empire, 1898–1948,” PhD diss., Brandeis University, 2008.

57
George M. Sternberg, “Smallpox,” in
USWDAR 1899, Reports of the Chiefs of Bureaus
, 596–602, esp. 598. Ames, “Compulsory Vaccination Essential,” 722. George G. Groff, “Vaccinating a Nation,”
MN
, Nov. 25, 1899, 679. Alden, “Puerto Rico,” 21.

58
Hoff, “Experience of the Army with Vaccination,” 492. “Small-Pox Scare,”
PI
, Oct. 9, 1898. “Deaths in Porto Rico,”
DMN
, Dec. 24, 1898, 3. Dr. S. H. Wadhams, “Smallpox in Puerto Rico,”
YMJ
, 6 (1899–1900), 279.