Stalin's Genocides (18 page)

18. Jörg Baberowski and Anselm Doering-Manteuffel, “The Quest for Order and the Pursuit of Terror,” in
Beyond Totalitarianism: Stalinism and Nazism Compared
, eds. Michael Geyer and Sheila Fitzpatrick (New York: Cambridge University Press, 152

notes to chapter 7

2009), p. 213; Ronald G. Suny, “Stalin and His Stalinism: Power and Authority in the Soviet Union,” in
Stalinism and Nazism: Dictatorships in Comparison
, eds. Ian Kershaw and Moshe Lewin (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), p. 50.

19. Werth, “The Crimes of the Stalin Regime,” p. 15.

20. HIA, f. 89, op. 48, d. 3, l. 14.

21. HIA, f. 89, op. 48, d. 17, l. 31.

22. Cited in Richard Pipes,
Communism: A History
(New York: Modern Library, 2003), p. 63.

23. Jansen and Petrov,
Stalin’s Loyal Executioner
, p. 111.

24. J. Arch Getty and Oleg V. Naumov, eds.,
The Road to
Terror:
Stalin and the Self-Destruction of the Bolsheviks, 1932–

1939
(New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999), pp. 130–131.

25. McLoughlan, “Mass Operations of the NKVD,” p. 128.

Getty and Naumov,
Yezhov
, p. 216. The authors suggest, no doubt correctly, that Stalin “trusted Yezhov’s judgment,” as least in this period.

26. Jansen and Petrov,
Stalin’s Loyal Executioner
, pp. 69–70.

27. Khaustov and Samuel’son,
Stalin, NKVD, i repressii
, pp.

23–24.

28. HIA, f. 89, op. 48, d. 12, ll. 25–26.

29. Oleg Khlevniuk, “The Objectives of the Great Terror,” in
Stalinism
, p. 97.

30. Shearer,
Policing Stalin’s Socialism
, p. 369.

31. Volkogonov,
Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy
, p. 310.

32. Oleg Khlevniuk,
The History of the Gulag: From Collectivization to the Great Terror,
trans. Vadim A. Staklo (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004), p. 148.

chapter 7. the crimes of stalin and hitler

1. Conquest,
The Harvest of Sorrow
, p. 3.

2. Stephane Courtois, “Introduction: The Crimes of Communism,” in
The Black Book of Communism
, ed. Courtois et al., p. 9.

notes to chapter 7 153

3. Conquest,
Reflections on a Ravaged Century
, p. xii.

4. Danilo Kis,
Homo-Poeticus: Essays and Interviews
(New York: Farrar, Straus, Giroux, 1995), p. 126. Thanks to Holly Case for alerting me to these essays.

5. Richard Evans,
In Hitler’s Shadow: West German Historians’ Attempts to Escape from the Nazi Past
(London: I. B. Tauris, 1989), p. 88.

6. Schabas,
Genocide in International Law
, p. 9.

7. Michael Mann,
The Dark Side of Democracy: Explaining Ethnic Cleansing
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), p. 17; Jacques Semelin,
Purify and Destroy: The Political Uses of Massacre and Genocide
(London: Hurst, 2007), pp.

316–320.

8. Eric D. Weitz,
A Century of Genocide: Utopias of Race
and Nation
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2003), pp.

100–101.

9. Bernd Bonwetsch, “Der GULAG und die Frage des Völker-mords,” in
Moderne Zeiten? Krieg, Revolution und Gewalt im
20. Jahrhundert
, ed. Jörg Baberowski (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck

& Ruprecht, 2006), p. 9.

10. Christian Gerlach and Nicolas Werth, “State Violence—

Violent Societies,” in
Beyond Totalitarianism
, eds. Geyer and Fitzpatrick, p. 138.

11. Paul Hollander, ed.,
From the Gulag to the Killing Fields:
Personal Accounts of Political Violence and Repression in Communist States
(Wilmington, DE: ISI Books, 2006), pp. 20–24.

12. Saul Friedländer’s emphasis on the singular importance of the Nazi perception of the Jewish threat as “active” and ubiquitous helps distinguish their eliminationist policy against the Jews from the policies against other Nazi victims of genocide.

Yet this idea of an “active” and “dangerous” target also inevitably draws comparisons to Stalinist genocidal actions against

“kulaks” and other “enemies of the people.” Saul Friedländer,
The Years of Extermination: Nazi Germany and the Jews 1939–

1945
(New York: Harper Collins, 2007), p. xix.

154

notes to conclusions

13.
Deti GULAGa. 1918–1956: Dokumenty
(Moscow: Mezhdunarodnyi fond “Demokratija,” 2002.)

14. Courtois does state that his formulation should not be seen as detracting “from the unique nature of Auschwitz.” “Introduction,” in
The Black Book of Communism
, ed. Courtois et al., p. 9.

15. James J. Sheehan,
Where Have All the Soldiers Gone?

The Transformation of Modern Europe
(New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2008).

conclusions

1. Gerlach and Werth, “State Violence—Violent Societies,”

Beyond Totalitarianism
, p. 176

Index

Akhmatova, Anna, 99–100

dered by, 20, 90, 92; NKVD,

Alliluyeva, Nadezhda, 34

named as head and purging

Alliluyeva, Svetlana, 34, 37

of, 88, 119

American Relief Administration

“Bonapartism,” Stalin’s worries

(ARA), 73–74

regarding, 118

Anderson, Benedict, 3

Bukharin, Nikolai: confession

anti-Polonism, 92

of, 102; metaphor for Stalin’s

Archipelago Gulag, special

rule, 35; in the post-Lenin

settlements as a dimension of,

struggle for power, 47–48;

59–63

pre-trial attacks on, 105; in

Argentina, 28

the Revolution, 43; Stalin’s

Armenian genocide, 8

break with, 55; Stalin’s hatred

of, 49; trial of, 101, 103

Baberowski, Jörg, 44, 109

Baltic countries: forced de-

Cambodia, 28, 109

portations from, 89; “forest

Chechens, 93–97, 135

brethren,” actions against, 25,

China, contribution to the word-

27, 89; laws against genocide

ing of the genocide convention

in, 24–25, 132; legal prosecu-

by, 21

tions for genocide in, insights

Chuev, Feliks, 6

into Soviet genocide provided

Churchill, Winston, 20

by, 25–28; Soviet occupation

Cold War politics, Stalin’s mass

of, 88–89

killings and, 5–8

Baranov, M. I., 114

collectivization: dekulakization

Beria, Lavrentiy: Chechens and

as element of, 55–56, 71 (
see

Ingush, campaigns against,

also
dekulakization); forced

95–96; Katyn massacre or-

industrialization through, 71;

156

index

collectivization (
cont
.)

“Dizzy with Success” (Stalin),

havoc wreaked by, 57–58;

64

political goal of, 54–55;

Djugashvili, Iosif.
See
Stalin,

resistance to in the Ukraine,

Josef

71–73 (
see also
Ukrainian

Djugashvili, Vissarion (Besarion

famine [the Holodomor])

or Beso), 36

Conquest, Robert, 70, 99,

Doctors’ Plot, 33

121–22, 125

Doering-Manteuffel, Anselm,

Courtois, Stephane, 121–22,

109

127

Dzerzhinskii, Feliks, 86

Crimean Tatars, 93, 97, 135

Ellman, Michael, 147n.2

Davies, R. W., 147n.2

Estonia.
See
Baltic countries

“Decree on Land” (November 8,

Estonians, 87

1917), 52

Etchecolatz, Miguel Osvaldo,

Decree on the Rights of the

142n.25

Peoples of Russia (November

Evans, Richard, 122

15, 1917), 81

dekulakization: collectivization

Finns, 87

and, 55–56, 71; genocidal

First Five-Year Plan, 53–54

qualities of, 58–60, 63, 133–

forced deportation: from the

34; initiation and goals of,

Baltic states, 27, 89; in the

55–57; invented group oppos-

Baltic states, legal status as

ing collectivization, aimed at,

genocide, 25; of Chechens and

24; results of, 68–69; second

Ingush, 95–96; of Crimean

civil war prompted by, 57–58;

Tatars, 97; genocidal status

“socially harmful elements,”

of, 13; of the Koreans, 87–88;

as part of campaign against,

of kulaks, 57, 59; Stalin’s

65–68, 134; special settle-

remorseless reaction to the

ments for deportees, 59–63; of

costs of, 32

the Ukrainian peasantry (
see

forced industrialization, 71.
See

Ukrainian famine (the Holo-

also
collectivization

domor)); waves of, 63–65.
See

foreign threats: claims of, histo-

also
collectivization

rians’ acceptance of, 129–30;

Deti GULAGa,
127

fears of war and infiltration

Dikii, Aleksei, 49

as ostensible reasons for geno-

Dimitrov, Georgi, 107

cidal actions, 53–54, 82–84,

index 157

95, 120, 136–37; political use

Holocaust, the); Nazi, “work-

of, 53–54

ing toward the Führer” in,

110; Nazi operation against

Geladze, Ekaterina (Keke), 36

the Poles, 91

genocide: categories of victims,

Goldman, Wendy, 68

question of, 3–5, 16–17,

Gorky, Maxim, 59

21–24, 27–29, 132; conven-

Great October Revolution,

tion against (
see
U.N. Conven-

42–43, 51–52

tion on the Prevention and

Great Terror, the: atmosphere

Punishment of the Crime of

and life during, 99–100; end

Genocide); definitional/legal

of, 88; as genocide, 109, 136;

characteristics of, 10, 25–28;

the nationalities, impact on,

examples of (
see
dekulakiza-

84–85, 86–87, 118–19; over-

tion; Great Terror, the; na-

zealousness by local officials,

tionalities; Ukrainian famine

110–11; preparations for the

(the Holodomor); Lemkin’s

show trials, 103–6; reasons

definition of, 15–17; lives lost

for and effects of, 116–20;

in mass killings of the Stalin

secrecy and publicity, mixture

regime, 131–32; need to face,

of in extraordinary processes,

8; scholarly abstention from

111–12; the show trials,

using the word, 124; schol-

18–19, 100–2; Stalin and

arly dangers confronted in

Yezhof in charge of, 106–9;

the study of Soviet, 13–14;

torture in, 112–16

Stalin’s crimes and the Holo-

Gregory, Paul, 67

caust, question of equivalence

Grigorenko, Piotr, 56

of, 2, 121–23, 125–30, 137;

Gulag, the.
See
Archipelago

Stalin’s mass murders as, 1–2,

Gulag

123–24; Stalin’s mass mur-

ders as, inhibitions to making

Hagenloh, Paul, 146–47n.22

the argument for, 2–8; torture

Hedeler, Wladislaw, 101

and, 114

Himmler, Heinrich, 128

“Georgian Affair,” 80

Hitler, Adolf, 2, 5, 91, 120, 122,

Germans: Stalin’s ambivalence

129–30, 137

regarding, 149n.6; as target

Hollander, Paul, 125–28

of Soviet campaign against

Holocaust, the: Stalin’s crimes

nationalities, 81–82, 84–87

and, comparing claims to

Germany: the Holocaust (
see

genocide of, 2, 121–23,

158

index

Holocaust, the (
cont
.)

Khlevnink, Oleg, 118, 120

125–30, 137; as a uniquely

Khrushchev, Nikita, 96–97, 107,

horrible event, 2, 125

130

Holodomor, the.
See
Ukrainian

Kiernan, Ben, 28

famine (the Holodomor)

Kirov, Sergei, 34

Hoover, Herbert, 73–74

Kis, Danilo, 122

Kliuchevsky, Vasilii, 66

Ingush, 93, 95–97, 135

Koba (Stalin’s first underground

International Court of Justice, 9

pseudonym), 38, 41

International Criminal Tribunal

Koreans: forced deportation of,

for Rwanda (ICTR), 10

87–88; as target of Soviet

International Criminal Tribunal

campaign against nationali-

for the former Yugoslavia

ties, 81–82, 87–88

(ICTY), 9–10

korenizatsiia,
80–81, 98

Iranians, 87

Krstic´, Radoslav, 9

Krupskaia, Nadezhda, 46

Jews: the Holocaust (
see
Holo-

Kuibyshev, Valerian, 103

caust, the); Stalin’s campaign

kulaks: as imagined social

against Soviet, 32–33

enemy, 24, 55–57; Soviet

Joint Distribution Service, 32–33

genocide against (
see
deku-

Jonassohn, Kurt, 76–77

lakization)

Kulchytsky, Stanislav, 147n.2

Kaganovich, Lazar: on the early

Kun, Miklos, 9

Stalin, 40; preparations for

Kuromiya, Hiroaki, 9, 147n.2

show trials, participation in,

103; railways, enemy agents’

Latvia.
See
Baltic countries

actions against, 83; Stalin’s

Lemkin, Raphael, 15–17, 20,

pressure, unflinching response

23, 132

to, 31; as subordinate of Sta-

Lenin, Vladimir Il’ich: Bukharin

lin, 47; the Ukrainian famine,

and, 105; characterization

actions regarding, 74, 79

of, 144n.14; death of and the

Kamenev, Lev, 46–47, 100, 103