Terror in the Balkans (116 page)

War,’” in
Anticipating Total War: The German and American Experiences 1871–1914
, ed. Manfred F. Boemke, Roger Chickering, and Stig Förster (Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press, 1999), 415–436; Sabine Dabringhaus, “An Army on Vacation? The

German War in China,” in Boemke et al.,
Anticipating Total War: The German and

American Experiences 1871–1914
, 459–476; John Horne and Alan Kramer,
German
Atrocities 1914: A History of Denial
(New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2001); Isabel V. Hull,
Absolute Destruction: Military Culture and the Practice of War in Imperial
Germany
(Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2006), chaps. 1–8.

46. Hull,
Absolute Destruction: Military Culture and the Practice of War in Imperial
Germany,
132–133.

47. Ibid., 106.

48. For more depth on this issue, see Ben Shepherd,
War in the Wild East: The Ger-

man Army and Soviet Partisans
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004),

chap. 2.

49. On development of insurgency and counterinsurgency during the nineteenth and

early twentieth centuries, see John Ellis,
From the Barrel of a Gun: A History of

Guerrilla, Revolutionary, and Civil Warfare from the Romans to the Present
(Lon-

don: Greenhill, 1995); Bruce Vandervort,
Wars of Imperial Conquest in Africa 1830–

1914
(London: University College London Press, 1998); Ian F. W. Beckett,
Modern
Insurgencies and Counter-Insurgencies: Guerrillas and their Opponents since 1750

(London: Routledge, 2001).

276
Notes to Pages 25–29

50. Charles D. Melson, “German Counter-Insurgency Revisited,”
Journal of Slavic

Military Studies
24 (2011): 118–119.

51. Horne and Kramer,
German Atrocities 1914: A History of Denial,
1.

52. See the essays by Stig Förster, Manfred Messerschmidt, and Thomas Rohkrämer, in

Stig Förster and Jörg Nagler, eds.,
On the Road to Total War: The American Civil War
and the German Wars of Unifi cation, 1861–1871
(Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press, 1997); Geoffrey Wawro,
The Franco-Prussian War: The German Conquest of

France in 1870–1871
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), chap. 11.

53. Robert M. Citino,
The German Way of War: From the Thirty Years’ War to the Third
Reich
(Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2008).

54. Hull,
Absolute Destruction: Military Culture and the Practice of War in Imperial
Germany,
chaps. 1–8. On German military planning during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, see also Arden Bucholz,
Moltke, Schlieffen, and Prussian War Planning
(New York: Berg, 1991). On the effect such doctrines had upon

general German military planning during World War II, see Geoffrey P. Megargee,

Inside Hitler’s High Command
(Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2000); and

upon counterinsurgency warfare in particular, see Jonathan Gumz, “Wehrmacht

Perceptions of Mass Violence in Croatia, 1941–1942,”
Historical Journal
44 (2001): 1015–1038; Philip W. Blood,
Hitler’s Bandit Hunters: The SS and the Nazi Occupation of Europe
(Dulles, VA: Potomac, 2006).

55. Hans Umbreit, “Das unbewältigte Problem: Der Partisanenkrieg im Rücken der

Ostfront,” in
Stalingrad: Ereignis—Wirkung—Symbol
, ed. Jürgen Förster (Zurich:

Piper, 1992), 133.

56. Hull,
Absolute Destruction: Military Culture and the Practice of War in Imperial
Germany,
chap. 8.

57. Horne and Kramer,
German Atrocities 1914: A History of Denial,
425.

58. Gumz,
The Resurrection and Collapse of Empire in Habsburg Serbia, 1914–1918,
33–34.

59. Hürter,
Hitlers Heerführer: Die deutschen Oberbefehlshaber im Krieg gegen die Sowjetunion 1941/42,
63–66.

2. forging a wa rtime menta lit y

1. Stig Förster, “Dreams and Nightmares: German Military Leadership and the

Images of Future Warfare 1871–1914,” in
Anticipating Total War: The German and

American Experiences 1871–1914
, ed. Manfred F. Boemke, Roger Chickering, and

Stig Förster (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 362–376. See also

Dennis Showalter, “From Deterrence to Doomsday Machine: The German Way of

War, 1890–1914,”
Journal of Military History
64 (2000): 705–710.

2. Gunther E. Rothenburg,
The Army of Francis Joseph
(Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press, 1998), 177.

3. Alan Kramer,
Dynamic of Destruction: Culture and Mass Killing in the First World

War
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 90.

Notes to Pages 30–33
277

4. Rudolf Jerabek,
Potiorek: General im Schatten von Sarajevo
(Graz: Verlag Styria, 1990), 162–165; Jonathan Gumz,
The Resurrection and Collapse of Empire in Habsburg Serbia, 1914–1918
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 34–59.

5. Gumz,
The Resurrection and Collapse of Empire in Habsburg Serbia, 1914–1918,
46.

6. Ibid.

7. Ibid., 58.

8. Jerabek,
Potiorek: General im Schatten von Sarajevo,
162. On Habsburg ruthlessness towards occupied populations during the Great War, see also Anton Holzer,

Das Lächeln der Henker: Der unbekannte Krieg gegen die Zivilbevoelkerung 1914–

1918
(Darmstadt: Primus, 2008).

9. Jerabek,
Potiorek: General im Schatten von Sarajevo,
162–165; Kramer,
Dynamic of
Destruction: Culture and Mass Killing in the First World War,
132–134.

10. Gumz,
The Resurrection and Collapse of Empire in Habsburg Serbia, 1914–1918,
52, 59–61.

11. John Horne and Alan Kramer,
German Atrocities 1914: A History of Denial
(New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2001). See also Jeff Lipkes,
Rehearsals: The German Army in Belgium, August 1914
(Leuven: Leuven University Press, 2007).

12. Förster, “Dreams and Nightmares: German Military Leadership and the Images of

Future Warfare 1871–1914,”; Isabel V. Hull,
Absolute Destruction: Military Culture

and the Practice of War in Imperial Germany
(Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2005), chap. 7.

13. Horne and Kramer,
German Atrocities 1914: A History of Denial
, 113–129, 425.

14. Ibid., 153–161.

15. For instance, for listings of Bavarian army units participating in the 1914 reprisals, see Horne and Kramer,
German Atrocities 1914: A History of Denial
, 600 (index).

16. Peter Lieb, “Aufstandsbekämpfung im strategischen Dilemma: Die deutsche Besat-

zung in der Ukraine 1918,” in
Die Besatzung der Ukraine 1918: Historischer Kontext—

Forschungsstand—Wirtschaftliche und Soziale Folgen
, ed. Wolfram Dornik and

Stefan Karner (Graz: Ludwig Boltzmann-Institut, 2008), 111–139.

17. John Horne and Alan Kramer, “War between Soldiers and Enemy Civilians 1914–

1915,” in
Great War, Total War: Combat and Mobilisation on the Western Front

1914–1918
, ed. Roger Chickering and Stig Förster (Cambridge: Cambridge Univer-

sity Press, 2000), 159–160.

18. Horne and Kramer,
German Atrocities 1914: A History of Denial
, 402–403; Richard M. Fattig, “Reprisal: The German Army and the Execution of Hostages during the

Second World War” (PhD thesis, University of California, 1980), 30–47, chap. 3.

19. On the German soldier’s perspective, see Bernd Ulrich, “Feldpostbriefe im Ersten

Weltkrieg: Bedeutung und Zensur,” in
Kriegsalltag: Die Rekonstruktion des Kriegs-

alltags als Aufgabe der historischen Forschung und der Friedenszerziehung
, ed. Peter Knoch (Stuttgart: Metzler, 1989), 40–83; Bernd Ulrich, “Feldpostbriefe des Ersten

Weltkrieges: Möglichkeiten und Grenzen einer alltagsgeschichtlichen Quelle,”

Militärgeschichtliche Mitteilungen
53 (1994): 73–84; Anne Lipp, “Friedenssucht und Durchhaltebereitschaft: Wahrnehumgen und Erfahrungen deutscher Soldaten

im Ersten Weltkrieg,”
Archiv für Sozialgeschichte
36 (1996): 279–292; Gerhard
278
Notes to Pages 33–36

Hirschfeld et al., eds.,
Kriegserfahrungen: Studien zur Sozial- und Mentalitätsgeschichte des Ersten Weltkrieges
(Essen: Klartext-Verlag, 1997); Philipp Witkop, ed.,
German Students’ War Letters
, trans. A. F. Wedd (Philadelphia: University of Penn-sylvania Press, 2002); Bernd Ulrich and Benjamin Ziemann, eds.,
Frontalltag im

Ersten Weltkrieg: Ein Historisches Lesebuch
(Essen: Klartext Verlag, 2008).

20. Robert G. L. Waite,
Vanguard of Nazism: The Free Corps Movement in Postwar Ger-

many 1918–1923
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1952), 23.

21. See in particular the sources in Ulrich and Ziemann,
Frontalltag im Ersten Welt-

krieg: Ein Historisches Lesebuch.

22. Tony Ashworth,
Trench Warfare, 1914–1918: The Live and Let Live System
(London: Pan Grand Strategy, 2004).

23. BKA. I Bayr. AK, 11/21/15. Korps-Befehl. Betr.: Verkehr mit dem Feind. The fi le listings in this endnote and in some other endnotes in this chapter are incomplete. At

the time of writing it was not possible to re-check the relevant listings. The complete

listings for these endnotes can instead be accessed via http://www.gcu.ac.uk/gsbs/

staff/drbenshepherd/. The other relevant endnotes are: 49, 65, 75, 77, 83, 84, 89–92,

96, 119.

24. On the western front as a multifacted experience, see David Englander, “Mutinies

and Military Morale,” in
The Oxford Illustrated History of the First World War
, ed.

Hew Strachan (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 191–203; Hew Strachan,

The First World War: A New History
(London: Simon and Schuster, 2003), chap. 6.

25. For a balanced appraisal of the extent to which Germany’s wartime generation was

“brutalized,” see Kramer,
Dynamic of Destruction: Culture and Mass Killing in the

First World War,
304–313.

26. Alon Rachamimov,
POWs and the Great War: Captivity on the Eastern Front

(Oxford: Berg, 2002), 43.

27. John Schindler, “Disaster on the Drina: The Austro-Hungarian Army in Serbia, 1914,”

War in History
9 (2002): 159–195. On the Royal-Imperial Army’s 1914 Serbian cam-

paigns, see also Günther Rothenburg, “The Austro-Hungarian Camapaign against

Serbia in 1914,”
Journal of Military History
53 (1998): 127–146; Hew Strachan,
The
First World War
, vol. 1,
To Arms
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), 335–347.

28. Kramer,
Dynamic of Destruction: Culture and Mass Killing in the First World War,
142–143. “[
Sic
]” pointed out by Kramer.

29. Ibid.

30. Geoffrey Wawro, “Morale in the Austro-Hungarian Army: The Evidence of

Habsburg Army Campaign Reports and Intelligence Offi cers,” in
Facing Arma-

geddon: The First World War Experience
, ed. Hugh Cecil and Peter Liddle (Bas-

ingstoke: Pen and Sword, 1996), 399–412; Mark Cornwall, “Morale and Patriotism

in the Austro-Hungarian Army, 1914–1918,” in
State, Society and Mobilization in

Europe during the First World War
, ed. John Horne (Cambridge: Cambridge Uni-

versity Press, 1997), 184ff.; Mark Cornwall,
The Undermining of Austria-Hungary:

The Battle for Hearts and Minds
(London: Macmillan, 2000).

31. Andrej Mitrovic´,
Serbia’s Great War 1914–1918
(London: C. Hurst and Co., 2007), 312–326.

Notes to Pages 36–39
279

32. See also Walter Manoschek, “The Extermination of the Jews in Serbia” in
National
Socialist Extermination Policies: Contemporary German Perspectives and Controversies
, ed. Ulrich Herbert (Oxford: Berghahn, 2000), 170–171.

33. Fred Singleton,
Twentieth-Century Yugoslavia
(London: Macmillan, 1976), 10; Tim Judah,
The Serbs: History, Myth and the Destruction of Yugoslavia
(New Haven, CT: Yale, 1997), 99. See also Mitrovic´,
Serbia’s Great War 1914–1918
.

34. Mitrovic´,
Serbia’s Great War 1914–1918
, 221–244.

35. Gumz, The
Resurrection and Collapse of Empire in Habsburg Serbia, 1914–1918,
231–

248. See also review by Matthew Stibbe in
German History
28, no. 3 (2010): 379–380.

36. Gumz, The
Resurrection and Collapse of Empire in Habsburg Serbia, 1914–1918,
134, 215–230.

37. Judah,
The Serbs: History, Myth and the Destruction of Yugoslavia,
99.

38. Mark Thompson,
The White War: Life and Death on the Italian Front, 1915–1919
(London: Faber and Faber, 2008). For an overview of the war on the Italian front from the

Austro-Hungarian viewpoint, see Holger R. Herwig,
The First World War: Germany and

Austria-Hungary 1914–1918
(London: Hodder Arnold, 1997), 149–154, 336–350, 365–373.

39. Thompson,
The White War: Life and Death on the Italian Front, 1915–1919,
108, 194.

40. Ibid., 108.

41. Holger R. Herwig,
The First World War: Germany and Austria-Hungary 1914–1918
, 365.

42. Kriegsarchiv, Vienna (KA Vienna). Neue Feldakten (NFA) series 24, box 156 (24/156).

43. Sch.-Div. Kommando Truppendivisionskommandobefehl Nr. 111, 5/9/17, p. 3; ibid.,