The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions (2015 page)

 
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see
LIU-TSU-TA-SHIH FA-PAO-T’AN-CHING
.

 
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(
c.
1300–49)
. Christian hermit and mystic. Born near Pickering in Yorkshire, he became a hermit as a young man, latterly near the convent of Cistercian nuns at Hampole, where he died, perhaps of the Black Death. His writings, both in Latin and English, give expression to a highly affective mystical experience of ‘heat’, ‘sweetness’, and ‘song’.

 
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Roman Catholic Church
.

Those churches in communion with the Church of Rome, recognizing the leadership of the
pope
. The word ‘
Catholic
’ means ‘universal’, and thus the addition of ‘Roman’ seems to some contradictory, since they regard the Church under the successor of
Peter
(see
PETRINE TEXTS
) as the one, universal Church; other Christians (i.e. those who are baptized and ‘honoured by the name of Christian’,
Lumen Gentium
, 15) are held to be ‘in a certain, although imperfect, communion with the Catholic Church’ (
Unitatis redintegratio
, 3). To be in complete communion with the Church of Rome is to belong to the Catholic Church. However, the addition of ‘Roman’ has become more common during the recent decades of
ecumenicism
, not least in recognition of the status of
uniate
Churches and of other uses of the world ‘Catholic’; ‘Roman Catholic’ is therefore used in this article and throughout the
Dictionary
.
Central government is exercised by the pope and
curia
(usually referred to as ‘the
Vatican
).
It is by far the largest of the Christian denominations, with approaching a billion members. Serving the Church's members are just over 400,000 priests, 68,000 male religious, and just short of one million female religious. There are rather more than 2,000 dioceses or equivalent administrative areas, but a quarter of these are in Europe.
The Roman Catholic Church insists on its continuity of belief, liturgy, and structure from the pre-
Reformation
church, and upon its right, as (in its own view) the one church founded by
Christ
, to hold
councils
of its own bishops which are regarded as
ecumenical
and, doctrinally, of the same standing as the councils of the early church. It has held three since the Reformation, those of
Trent
, Vatican I, and Vatican II. At Vatican I the bishops asserted the primacy and
infallibility
of the pope, but at Vatican II the RC Church made an effort to come closer to other Christian churches, and formulated no firm doctrinal statements—setting, for example, Mariological (see
MARY
) devotion (so typical of Catholicism) firmly within its ecclesial framework. In the subsequent years,
Paul VI
did much to put into effect the programme of Vatican II, but began also to express a caution which became also a marked feature of the policy of John Paul II—culminating in
Catechism of the Catholic Church
(1993/4): in this, for example, the Bible is used as though a-historical, as though its embeddedness in history has no effect on the application of the text to current issues.
Throughout its history, the Roman Catholic Church has placed great emphasis on the offering of life, through the Church, to God in obedience and holiness. It has thus given special importance to the
monastic
life, which epitomizes the choice of God rather than the world. At the same time, the radical choice for God has led to a constant acceptance of
martyrdom
, which the outreach of evangelism (not least in the 20th cent.) has repeatedly brought about; the strong emphasis on being the only Church has equally led Roman Catholics to be zealous in their persecution of others, and evangelism often accompanied conquest, as in the policy of Spain (between the 16th and 18th cents.). In this context, the prayer of the faithful was, until the 15th cent., apt to be of a verbal and repetitive nature. The Latin liturgy and Bible (
Vulgate
) increased the problems for the laity in understanding the faith. Since Vatican II, the change to vernacular liturgies and Bibles, together with the transformation of the penitential rites (
confession
) and the move of the altar to the centre of the church, has increased the active participation of all in worship. It remains the case that strict rules govern membership of the Church, e.g. concerning who may communicate at
Mass
, or the status of divorced people; celibacy is a requirement for priests (even though in some parts of the world this means that the celebration of the Mass is infrequent); and the laity are under obligation not to use artificial contraception (see
HUMANAE VITAE
). The latter arises from definitions of the meaning of ‘the person’, and of when the life of any particular person begins. The same consideration underlies the absolute opposition to
abortion
. Control (through licensing) is also exercised over those teaching in Catholic schools and universities, and while many such institutions are now under the direction of lay professionals, publications and lectures may still occasion discipline, which many include the silencing of so-called progressive theologians. Conformity has not in the past meant a repetitive
theology
: theology and philosophy have had a high place in Roman Catholicism, by no means confined to
scholasticism
.
The central place, both of the Mass in worship, and of the Church in the community, has contributed to the inspiration of enduring
art
, architecture, and
music
, as well as many kinds of literature. The Church as patron has had immense consequences for civilization as a whole. So also has the absolute requirement to be generous to those in need (a requirement which goes back to Christ). As a result, schools, hospitals, places where the needy and dying can find refuge, and a wide range of aid programmes have multiplied. This tradition is also expressed in 100 years of teaching on social justice issues, from
Rerum Novarum
to the
Constitution of the Church in the Modern World (Gaudium et Spes)
in 1965, and subsequent encyclicals. The financial cost of the Vatican is great and falls heavily on the Church in the USA, where the majority have a vision of the Church in the service of the world which has been increasingly at variance from the official Vatican line (though, they would say, in line with the vision of Vatican II). The resulting tension can be seen particularly in the radical divide over the opportunities open to women to have a voice comparable to that of men in the Church. Roman Catholicism is highly clericalized, and the refusal to allow the possibility that women can be ordained means that they can never be a serious part of the leadership or decision-making of the Church.