The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions (2397 page)

Symbols
,
symbolism

(Gk.,
sumbolon
, ‘sign, token, pledge’;
sumballein
, ‘cast together’). The representation in visible form of ideas, beliefs, actions, persons, events, etc., frequently (in the religious case) of transcendent realities, which bring the observer into connection and participation. So pervasive is the human use of symbols that E. Cassirer (
An Essay on Man
, 1944) called the human species
animal symbolicum
. Although it might seem obvious to define a symbol as that which stands for something which it represents (as a flag might be said to ‘stand for’ the country which it represents), in fact a symbol involves far more complex conditions of meaning—to be seen not least in the fact that symbols frequently stand for themselves, especially in the religious case (see R. Wagner,
Symbols that Stand for Themselves
, 1986): the symbolic actions of the Hebrew
prophets
, for example, do not stand for (i.e. summarize in advance) a future event, but rather bring the reality of that event into being in the present. Beyond that, symbols may be non-referential and of effect in creating community and meaning (see A. P. Cohen,
The Symbolic Construction of Community
, 1985).
Since religions in that way are often evocative in their use of language, it is not surprising that the religious use of symbols can be paralleled in the turn to symbolism in arts and literature at the end of the 19th cent. The Symbolists were a loose association of artists and writers who turned strongly against the realist (and referential) ambitions of, for example, the Pre-Raphaelites or the neo-Impressionists, or of such writers as Flaubert and Zola. The importance of decoration in the symbolist sense is profoundly important in religious symbolism, though largely overlooked: there is an aesthetic satisfaction no matter what other purposes are being served. Most accounts of religious symbolism look at their function, especially as codes. An early meaning of
sumbolon
in Christianity is that of
creed
, where the function of symbols in compressing (Gk.,
sumballein
, ‘to throw together’) meaning and making it publicly available is emphasized. As C. S. Peirce realized, humans use different kinds of signs and symbols, each bearing some of the characteristics of the others. As a consequence of his work, the study of symbolism is firmly embedded in semiotics (Gk.,
s
ma
, ‘a sign’). Peirce drew a distinction between three types of sign: icon, index, and symbol. An icon is a sign containing some of the qualities associated with the thing signified (e.g. maps and diagrams); an index is a sign which is in a dynamic relation with the thing signified and calls attention to what is signified (e.g. the column of mercury in a thermometer measuring temperature and indicating health or illness); a symbol is a conventional sign with an agreed connotation. Symbols are economies of statement and feeling which conserve successful accounts of context (success being measured crudely by persistence) and which evoke coherence by their power to unite immense diversities of human being and experience. But equally they set forward new opportunities of exegesis and action. See also
FEMININE SYMBOLS AND RELIGION
;
ICONOGRAPHY
.

 
Back
  -  
 
New Search

(949–1022).
Byzantine mystic and spiritual writer. After entering the imperial service, he became a monk, first at Studios, then at St Mamas in Constantinople, where he became abbot. In 1005 he was forced to resign because of opposition to his teaching, and he was exiled. Though this was revoked, he remained in voluntary exile. Much influenced by the
Macarian Homilies
, he was a formative influence on
hesychasm
. He is known as the ‘new’ or ‘second’ theologian, second only to
Gregory
Nazianzen.

 
Back
  -  
 
New Search

(late 2nd cent. CE).
Jewish
tanna
. Symmachus was a disciple of Meir. He was the author of the principle, ‘Money, the ownership of which cannot be decided, has to be equally divided’ (
BBK
46a), but is not to be identified with the Symmachus who translated the Bible into Greek (see also
ONKELOS
).

 
Back
  -  
 
New Search

(Heb.,
bet
keneset
). Jewish meeting house and place of worship. The synagogue, in embryonic form, may perhaps date back to the period of the Babylonian
exile
. By the 1st cent. CE, the synagogue emerges as a well-established institution. With the calamity of 70 CE, the synagogue became the main focus of Jewish religious life. Many of the rituals and customs of the Temple were adopted in the synagogue (e.g. the times of the Temple
sacrifices
became the times of the synagogue prayers), and the synagogue also performed the function of a community centre. Different patterns of architecture have been followed in synagogue buildings. Many modern Orthodox synagogues have a small synagogue nearby, known as a bet ha-midrash, which is used for weekday services. In addition there are community halls and facilities for synagogue schools. The
Reform
movement has built impressive synagogues (known as Temples in the USA); they have no special section for women; the bimah is generally placed in front of the Ark (so there is more room for seating) and there is often an organ and choir loft. Synagogues are grouped into organizations (e.g. The United Synagogue, The Federation of Synagogues, and the Union of Orthodox Hebrew Congregations (all British Orthodox organizations)) and rabbinic training is controlled by the organizations who sponsor the
rabbinical seminaries
.

 
Back
  -  
 
New Search