The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions (547 page)

 
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(
tzu
means ‘master’,
c.
370–286 BCE).
Considered by Taoists to be (with
Lao-tzu
) one of the founders of philosophical Taoism.
He is traditionally the author of the work bearing his name,
Chuang-tzu
(or
Nan-hua chenching
). Of its thirty-three chapters, 1–7 (the ‘inner books’) are perhaps his own, the fifteen ‘outer’ and eleven ‘mixed’ chapters are thought to be by his pupils. As with Lao-tzu, the
Tao
and its
te
are open to realization by all people. It requires well-directed and unattached action (
wu-wei
) and meditative concentration on the constantly changing nature of the world, which, when realized and discarded, leaves only the Tao.
Wisdom consists in recognizing distinction and perceiving the relation:
Chuang Chou dreamed that he was a butterfly, fluttering about, not knowing that it was Chuang Chou. He woke with a start, and was Chuang Chou again. But he did not know whether he was Chuang Chou who had dreamed that he was a butterfly, or a butterfly dreaming that he was Chuang Chou. Between Chuang Chou and the butterfly there must be some distinction: this is what is called, ‘the transformation of things’.

 
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(1130–1200).
Chinese philosopher, who developed the analysis of neo-Confucian concepts, accepting influence from both Buddhism and Taoism, in a form which persisted to the 20th cent. Since he attended closely to the work of his predecessor, Ch’eng Yi (see
CH’ENG HAO
), his school is often known as that—i.e Ch’eng-chu, though also as ‘the school of principle’, Li-hsüeh. In practical terms, he did much to establish the Four Classics as the basis of education. He wrote commentaries on the
Confucian Classics
, insisting on a realism in the pursuit of
jen
(true humanity) which he contrasted with Buddhism. He is therefore often held to be the beginning of positivistic or scientific method in Chinese thought.

 
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(1535–1615).
A Chinese monk who combined
Zen
and
Pure Land
Buddhism to produce a practical path for lay Buddhists. He developed a way in which nembutsu, meditation on a
k
an
, and a disciplined life, all reinforce each other, without any necessity for entering the sa
gha.

 
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