The Encyclopedia of Essential Oils (7 page)

SAFETY DATA Both root and seed oil are non-toxic and non-irritant. The root oil (not the seed oil) is phototoxic, probably due to higher levels of bergapten. Not to be used during pregnancy or by diabetics.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

SKIN CARE
: Dull and congested skin, irritated conditions, psoriasis.

CIRCULATION MUSCLES AND JOINTS
: Accumulation of toxins, arthritis, gout, rheumatism, water retention.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
: Bronchitis, coughs.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
: Anaemia, anorexia, flatulence, indigestion.

NERVOUS SYSTEM
: Fatigue, migraine, nervous tension and stress-related disorders.

IMMUNE SYSTEM
: Colds.

OTHER USES Highly valued as a fragrance component in soaps, lotions and perfumes especially colognes, oriental and heavy chyprès fragrances. It is employed in some cosmetics for its soothing effect on skin complaints. Used extensively as a flavouring agent in most food categories, and in alcoholic and soft drinks, especially liqueurs.

Illicium verum

FAMILY Illiciaceae

SYNONYMS Chinese anise, illicium, Chinese star anise.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION Evergreen tree up to 12 metres high with a tall, slender white trunk. It bears fruit which consist of five to thirteen seed-bearing follicles attached to a central axis in the shape of a star.

DISTRIBUTION Native to south east China, also Vietnam, India and Japan. Mainly produced in China.

OTHER SPECIES Several other related species, e.g. Japanese star anise which is highly poisonous!

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION Used in Chinese medicine for over 1300 years for its stimulating effect on the digestive system and for respiratory disorders such as bronchitis and unproductive coughs. In the East generally, it is used as a remedy for colic and rheumatism, and often chewed after meals to sweeten the breath and promote digestion. A common oriental domestic spice.

ACTIONS Antiseptic, carminative, expectorant, insect repellent, stimulant.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the fruits, fresh or partially dried. An oil is also produced from the leaves in small quantities.

CHARACTERISTICS A pale yellow liquid with a warm, spicy, extremely sweet, liquorice-like scent. It blends well with rose, lavender, orange, pine and other spice oils, and has excellent masking properties.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Trans-anethole (80–90 per cent).

SAFETY DATA Despite the anethole content, it does not appear to be a dermal irritant, unlike aniseed. In large doses it is narcotic and slows down the circulation; it can lead to cerebral disorders. Use in moderation only.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

CIRCULATION, MUSCLES AND JOINTS
: Muscular aches and pains, rheumatism.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
: Bronchitis, coughs.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
: Colic, cramp, flatulence, indigestion.

IMMUNE SYSTEM
: Colds.

OTHER USES By the pharmaceutical industry in cough mixtures, lozenges, etc. and to mask undesirable odours and flavours in drugs. As a fragrance component in soaps, toothpaste and detergents as well as cosmetics and perfumes. Widely used for flavouring food, especially confectionery, alcoholic and soft drinks.

Pimpinella anisum

FAMILY Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)

SYNONYMS
Anisum officinalis, A. vulgare
, anise, sweet cumin.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION An annual herb, less than a metre high, with delicate leaves and white flowers.

DISTRIBUTION Native to Greece and Egypt, now widely cultivated mainly in India and China and to a lesser extent in Mexico and Spain.

OTHER SPECIES There are several different chemotypes of aniseed according to the country of origin. Not to be confused with star anise, which belongs to a different family altogether.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION Widely used as a domestic spice. The volatile oil content provides the basis for its medicinal applications: dry irritable coughs, bronchitis and whooping cough. The seed can be used in smoking mixtures. Aniseed tea is used for infant catarrh, also flatulence, colic and griping pains, also for painful periods and to promote breast milk. In Turkey a popular alcoholic drink,
raki
, is made from the seed.

ACTIONS Antiseptic, antispasmodic, carminative, diuretic, expectorant, galactagogue, stimulant, stomachic.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the seeds.

CHARACTERISTICS Colourless to pale yellow liquid with a warm, spicy-sweet characteristic scent. Like star anise, it is a good masking agent.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Trans-anethole (75–90 per cent).

SAFETY DATA Its major component, anethole, is known to cause dermatitis in some individuals – avoid in allergic and inflammatory skin conditions. In large doses it is narcotic and slows down the circulation; can lead to cerebral disorders. Use in moderation only.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE
See star anise.

OTHER USES By the pharmaceutical industry in cough mixtures and lozenges and to mask undesirable flavours in drugs. Also used in dentifrices and as a fragrance component in soaps, toothpaste, detergents, cosmetics and perfumes, mostly of the industrial type. Employed in all major food categories.

Arnica montana

FAMILY Asteraceae (Compositae)

SYNONYMS
A. fulgens, A. sororia
, leopard’s bane, wolf’s bane.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A perennial alpine herb with a creeping underground stem, giving rise to a rosette of pale oval leaves. The flowering erect stem is up to 60 cms high, bearing a single, bright yellow, daisy-like flower. The whole plant is very difficult to cultivate.

DISTRIBUTION Native to northern and central Europe; also found growing wild in the USSR, Scandinavia and northern India. The oil is produced mainly in France, Belgium and Germany.

OTHER SPECIES A related plant,
A. cordifolia
, and other species of arnica are used in America, where it is known as ‘mountain tobacco’.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION This herb stimulates the peripheral blood supply when applied externally, and is considered one of the best remedies for bruises and sprains. It helps relieve rheumatic pain and other painful or inflammatory skin conditions, so long as the skin is not broken! It is never used internally due to toxicity levels.

ACTIONS Anti-inflammatory, stimulant, vulnerary.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation of 1. flowers, and 2. root. The yield of essential oil is very small. An absolute, tincture and resinoid are also produced.

CHARACTERISTICS 1. A yellowy-orange liquid with a greenish-blue hint and a strong bitter-spicy scent reminiscent of radish. 2. Dark yellow or butter-brown oil more viscous than the flower oil, with a strong bitter scent.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Thymohydroquinone dimethyl ether (80 per cent approx.), isobutyric ester of phlorol (20 per cent approx.) and other minor traces.

SAFETY DATA The essential oil is highly toxic and should never be used internally or on broken skin. However, the tincture or arnica ointment are valuable additions to the home medicine cabinet.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE None.

OTHER USES The tincture is mainly employed in pharmaceutical skin products. The oil from the flowers finds occasional use in herbaceous-type perfumes. It is also used to flavour certain liqueurs.

Ferula asa-foetida

FAMILY Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)

SYNONYMS Asafoetida, gum asafetida, devil’s dung, food of the gods, giant fennel.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A large branching perennial herb up to 3 metres high, with a thick fleshy root system and pale yellow-green flowers.

DISTRIBUTION Native to Afghanistan, Iran and other regions of south west Asia.

OTHER SPECIES There are several other species of
Ferula
which yield the oleoresin known as ‘asafetida’, e.g. Tibetan asafetida, which is also used to a lesser extent in commerce.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION In Chinese medicine it has been used since the seventh century as a nerve stimulant in treating neurasthenia. It is also widely used in traditional Indian medicine, where it is believed to stimulate the brain. In general, it has the reputation for treating various ailments
including asthma, bronchitis, convulsions, coughs, constipation, flatulence and hysteria. The foliage of the plant is used as a local vegetable. It is current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as a specific for intestinal flatulent colic.

ACTIONS Antispasmodic, carminative, expectorant, hypotensive, stimulant. Animals are repelled by its odour.

EXTRACTION The oleoresin is obtained by making incisions into the root and above-ground parts of the plant. The milky juice is left to leak out and harden into dark reddish lumps, before being scraped off and collected. The essential oil is then obtained from the resin by steam distillation. An absolute, resinoid and tincture are also produced.

CHARACTERISTICS A yellowy-orange oil with a bitter acrid taste and a strong, tenacious odour resembling garlic. However, beneath this odour there is a sweet, balsamic note.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Disulphides, notably 2-butyl propenyl disulphide with monoterpenes, free ferulic acid, valeric, traces of vanillin, among others.

SAFETY DATA Available information indicates the oil to be relatively non-toxic and non-irritant. However, it has the reputation for being the most adulterated ‘drug’ on the market. Before being sold, the oleoresin is often mixed with red clay or similar substitutes.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
: ‘There is evidence that the volatile oil is expelled through the lungs, therefore it is excellent for asthma, bronchitis, whooping cough etc.’
³

NERVOUS SYSTEM:
Fatigue, nervous exhaustion and stress- related conditions.

OTHER USES Now rarely used in pharmaceutical preparations; formerly used as a local stimulant for the mucous membranes. Occasionally used as a fixative and fragrance component in perfumes, especially rose bases and heavy oriental types. Employed in a wide variety of food categories, mainly condiments and sauces.

Melissa officinalis

FAMILY Lamiaceae (Labiatae)

SYNONYMS Melissa, common balm, bee balm, sweet balm, heart’s delight, honey plant.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A sweet-scented herb about 60 cms high, soft and bushy, with bright green serrated leaves, square stems and tiny white or pink flowers.

DISTRIBUTION Native to the Mediterranean region, now common throughout Europe, Middle Asia, North America, North Africa and Siberia. Mainly cultivated in France, Spain, Germany and Russia.

OTHER SPECIES Several varieties, e.g. a variegated leaf type, common in gardens.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION One of the earliest known medicinal herbs – Paracelsus called it the ‘Elixir of Life’. It was associated particularly with nervous disorders, the heart and the emotions. It was used for anxiety, melancholy, etc, and to strengthen and revive the vital spirit. Generally employed for digestive and complaints of nervous origin such as asthma, indigestion and flatulence. It also helps to regulate the menstrual cycle and promote fertility. Effective remedy for wasp and bee stings. In France the leaves are still used a great deal in pharmaceutical and herbal products. Current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia for flatulent dyspepsia, neurasthenia and depressive illness.

ACTIONS Antidepressant, antihistaminic, antispasmodic, bactericidal, carminative, cordial, diaphoretic, emmenagogue, febrifuge, hypertensive, insect-repellent, nervine, sedative, stomachic, sudorific, tonic, uterine, vermifuge.

EXTRACTION Essential oil steam distillation from the leaves and flowering tops.

CHARACTERISTICS A pale yellow liquid with a light, fresh lemony fragrance. It blends well with lavender, geranium, floral and citrus oils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Citral, citronellol, eugenol, geraniol, linalyl acetate, among others.

SAFETY DATA Available information indicates non-toxic. Possible sensitization and dermal irritation: use in low dilutions only. Care must also be taken because this is one of the most frequently adulterated oils. Most commercial so-called ‘melissa’ contains some or all of the following: lemon, lemongrass or citronella.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

SKIN CARE
: Allergies, insect bites, insect repellent. ‘Melissa in very low concentration is a very valuable oil indeed in treating eczema and other skin problems.’
⁴

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
: Asthma, bronchitis, chronic coughs.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
: Colic, indigestion, nausea.

GENITO-URINARY SYSTEM
: Menstrual problems.

NERVOUS SYSTEM
: Anxiety, depression, hypertension, insomnia, migraine, nervous tension, shock and vertigo.

OTHER USES Occasionally used in pharmaceutical preparations. Used extensively as a fragrance component in toiletries, cosmetics and perfumes. Employed in most major food categories including alcoholic and soft drinks.

Abies balsamea

FAMILY Pinaceae

SYNONYMS
A. balsamifera, Pinus balsaamea
, balsam fir, balsam tree, American silver fir, balm of Gilead fir, Canada turpentine (oil).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A tall, graceful evergreen tree up to 20 metres high, with a tapering trunk and numerous branches giving the tree an overall shape of a perfect cone. It forms blisters of oleoresin (the so-called ‘balsam’) on the trunk and branches, produced from special vesicles beneath the bark. The tree does not produce a ‘true’ balsam, since it does not contain benzoic or cinnamic acid in its esters; it is really an oleoresin, being a mixture of resin and essential oil.

DISTRIBUTION Native to North America, particularly Quebec, Nova Scotia and Maine.

OTHER SPECIES The hemlock spruce
(Tsuga canadensis)
also yields an exudation sold under the name of ‘Canada balsam’. There are also many other species of fir which produce oils from their needles – see entry on silver fir and Botanical Classification section.

NB Not to be confused with the genuine balsam of Gilead
(Commiphora opabalsamum)
, of ancient repute.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION The oleoresin is used extensively by the American Indians for ritual purposes and as an external treatment for burns, sores, cuts and to relieve heart and chest pains. It is also used internally for coughs.

ACTIONS Antiseptic (genito-urinary, pulmonary), antitussive, astringent, cicatrisant, diuretic, expectorant, purgative, regulatory, sedative (nerve), tonic, vulnerary.

EXTRACTION 1. The oleoresin is collected by punturing vesicles in the bark. 2. An essential oil is produced by steam distillation from the oleoresin, known as Canada balsam or Canada turpentine. (An essential oil is also produced by steam distillation from the leaf or needles, known as fir needle oil.)

CHARACTERISTICS 1. The oleoresin is a thick pale yellow or green honeylike mass which dries to crystal clear varnish, with a fresh sweet-balsamic, almost fruity odour. 2. A colourless mobile liquid with a sweet, soft-balsamic, pinelike scent. It blends well with pine, cedarwood, cypress, sandalwood, juniper, benzoin and other balsams.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Consists almost entirely of monoterpenes, pinene, phellandrene, esters and alcohols.

SAFETY DATA Generally non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing. ‘In large doses it is purgative and may cause nausea.’
³⁹

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

SKIN CARE
: Burns, cuts, haemorrhoids, wounds.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, chronic coughs, sore throat.

GENITO-URINARY SYSTEM
: Cystitis, genito-urinary infections.

NERVOUS SYSTEM
: Depression, nervous tension, stress-related conditions – described as ‘appeasing, sedative, elevating, grounding, opening’.
⁴⁰

OTHER USES The oil from the oleoresin is used in certain ointments and creams as an antiseptic and treatment for haemorrhoids. Used in dentistry as an ingredient in root canal sealers. Also used as a fixative or fragrance component in soaps, detergents, cosmetics and perfurmes. There is some low-level use in food products, alcoholic and soft drinks. The oleoresin is used as a medium in microscopy and as a cement in glassware.

Copaifera officinalis

FAMILY Fabaceae (Leguminosae)

SYNONYMS Copahu balsam, copaiba, copaiva, Jesuit’s balsam, Maracaibo balsam, para balsam.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION Wild-growing tropical tree up to 18 metres high, with thick foliage and many branches. The natural oleoresin occurs as a physiological product from various
Copaifera
species. Not a ‘true’ balsam.

DISTRIBUTION Native to north east and central South America. Mainly produced in Brazil; also Venezuela, Guyana, Surinam and Colombia.

OTHER SPECIES Several
Copaifera
speices yield an oleoresin: the Venezuelan type ‘Maracaibo balsam’ has a low oil content, the Brazilian type ‘para balsam’ has a high oil content. See also Botanical Classification section.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION Used for centuries in Europe in the treatment of chronic cystitis and bronchitis; also for treating piles, chronic diarrhoea and intestinal problems.

ACTIONS Batericidal, balsamic, disinfectant, diuretic, expectorant, stimulant.

EXTRACTION 1. The crude balsam is collected by drilling holes into the tree trunks; it is one of the most plentiful naturally occurring perfume materials. 2. An essential oil is
obtained by dry distillation from the crude balsam. It is mainly the ‘para balsams’ with a high oil content (60–80 per cent), which are used for distillation.

CHARACTERISTICS 1. The crude balsam is a viscous, yellowy-brown or greenish-grey liquid which hardens upon exposure to air with a mild, woody, slightly spicy odour. It blends well with styrax, amyris, lavandin, cedarwood, lavender, oakmoss, woods and spices. 2. The oil is a pale yellow or greenish mobile liquid with a mild, sweet, balsamic-peppery odour. It blends well with cananga, ylang ylang, vanilla, jasmine, violet and other florals.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Mainly caryophyllene.

SAFETY DATA Relatively non-toxic, non-irritant, possible sensitization. Large doses cause vomiting and diarrhoea.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
: Intestinal infections, piles.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
: Bronchitis, chills, colds, coughs, etc.

GENITO-RINARY SYSTEM
: Cystitis.

NERVOUS SYSTEM
: Stress-related conditons.

OTHER USES The oleoresin is used in pharmaceutical products especially cough medicines and iuretics. The oil and crude balsam are extensively used as a fixative and fragrance component in all types of perfumes, soaps, cosmetics and detergents. The crude is also used in porcelain painting.

Myroxylon balsamum var. pereirae

FAMILY Fabaceae (Leguminosae)

SYNONYMS
Toluifera pereira, Myrosperum pereira, Myroxylon pereirae
, Peruvian balsam, Indian balsam, black balsam.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A large tropical tree up to 25 metres high, with a straight smooth trunk, beautiful foliage and very fragrant flowers. Every part of the tree contains a reinous juice, including the fibrous fruit. The balsam is a pathological product, obtained from the exposed lacerated wood, after strips of the bark have been removed. It is a ‘true’ balsam, which is collected in the form of a dark brown or amber semi-solid mass.

DISTRIBUTION Native to Central America; production mainly takes place in San Salvador.

OTHER SPECIES
Myroxylon frutescens
and guina-guina are close relations, as well as Tolu balsam.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION It stimulates the heart, increases blood pressure, and lessens mucous secretions; useful for respiratory disorders such as asthma, chronic coughs and bronchitis. Traditionally employed for rheumatic pain and skin problems including scabies, nappy rash, bedsores, prurigo, eczema, sore nipples and wounds; it also destroys the itch acarus and its eggs.

ACTIONS Anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, balsamic, expectorant, parasiticide, stimulant; promotes the growth of epithelial cells.

EXTRACTION A resin-free essential oil is produced from the crude balsam by high vacuum dry distillation. (A wood oil is also produced by steam distillation from the wood chippings, which is considered of inferior quality. A white balsam called ‘myroxocarpin’ is made from the fruit, and an extract called ‘balsamito’ from the young fruit.)

CHARACTERISTICS The oil is a pale amber or brown viscous liquid with a rich, sweet, balsamic, ‘vanilla-like’ scent. It blends well with ylang ylang, patchouli, petitgrain, sandalwood, rose, spices, floral and oriental bases.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Benzoic and cinnamic acid esters such as benzyl benzoate, benzyl cinnamate and cinnamyl cinnamate as
well as other traces. The crude balsam contains approximately 50–64 per cent oil, referred to as ‘cinnamein’, and 20–28 per cent resin.

SAFETY DATA Non-toxic, non-irritant; however the balsam (not the oil) is a common contact allergen, which may cause dermatitis. Those who have this sensitivity may also react to benzoin resinoid; this is called ‘cross-sensitization’. The commercial oil is often a water-white liquid, being diluted with a solvent such as benzyl alcohol.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

SKIN CARE
: Dry and chapped skin, eczema, rashes, sores and wounds.

CIRCULATION, MUSCLES AND JOINTS
: Low blood pressure, rheumatism.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
: Asthma, bronchitis, coughs.

IMMUNE SYSTEM
: Colds.

NERVOUS SYSTEM
: Nervous tension, stress; like other balsams it has a warming, opening, comforting quality.

OTHER USES The balsam is extensively used in tropical medicinal preparations, and to some extent in pharmaceutical products, for example, cough syrup. Used as a fixative and fragrance component in soaps, detergents, creams, lotions and perfumes; the oil is often used in perfumery since this avoids any resin deposits or discolouration; used in most food categories, including alcoholic and soft drinks.

Myroxylon balsamum var. balsamum

FAMILY Fabaceae (Leguminosae)

SYNONYMS
Toluifera balsamum, Balsamum tolutanum, B. americanum, Myrospermum toluiferum
, Thomas balsam, resin Tolu, opobalsam.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A tall, graceful tropical tree, similar in appearance to the Peru balsam tree. The balsam is a pathological product, obtained by making V-shaped incisions into the bark and sap wood, often after the trunk has been beaten and scorched. It is a ‘true’ balsam.

DISTRIBUTION Native to South America, mainly Venezuela, Colombia and Cuba; also cultivated in the West Indies.

OTHER SPECIES There are many types of South American balsam-yielding trees, such as the Peru balsam – see entry.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION The balsam works primarily on the respiratory mucous membranes, and is good for chronic catarrh and non-inflammatory chest complaints, laryngitis and croup. It is still used as a flavour and mild expectorant in cough syrups and lozenges. As an ingredient in compound benzoin tincture and similar formulations, it is helpful in the treatment of cracked nipples, lips, cuts, bedsores, etc.