The Fever: How Malaria Has Ruled Humankind for 500,000 Years (40 page)

 
84
. Voskuil,
The Economics of Water Power Development
, 15.

 
85
. Cumbler,
Northeast and Midwest United States
, 57.

 
86
. Quoted in ibid.

 
87
. Holmes,
Boylston Prize Dissertations for the Years 1836 and 1837
, 55.

 
88
. W. V. King and G. H. Bradley, “Distribution of the Nearctic Species of Anopheles” and “Bionomics and Ecology of Nearctic Anopheles,” in Forest Ray Moulton, ed.,
A Symposium on Human Malaria with Special Reference to North America and the Caribbean Region
(Washington, D.C.: American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1941), 71–87.

 
89
. Voskuil,
The Economics of Water Power Development
, 15.

 
90
. “Malaria’s Baleful Work.”

 
91
. C. M. Wenyon, “The Incidence and Etiology of Malaria in Macedonia,”
Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps
27 (1921): 83–277.

 
92
. Bruce-Chwatt and de Zulueta,
The Rise and Fall of Malaria in Europe
, 47.

 
93
. H. Collinson Owen,
Salonika and After
(London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1919), 175–85.

 
94
. Bruce-Chwatt and de Zulueta,
The Rise and Fall of Malaria in Europe
, 47.

 
95
. Ibid.

 
96
. Owen,
Salonika and After
, 175–85.

 
97
. Robert Bwire,
Bugs in Armor: A Tale of Malaria and Soldiering
(Lincoln, Neb.: ToExcel Press, 2000), 38, and Bruce-Chwatt and de Zulueta,
The Rise and Fall of Malaria in Europe
, 47.

 
98
. Bruce-Chwatt and de Zulueta,
The Rise and Fall of Malaria in Europe
, 47.

 
99
. Owen,
Salonika and After
, 187.

100
. Hackett,
Malaria in Europe
, 2.

101
. Owen,
Salonika and After
, 186.

102
. Wenyon, “The Incidence and Etiology of Malaria in Macedonia,” 83–277.

103
. Ackerknecht,
Malaria in the Upper Mississippi Valley, 1760–1900
, 89.

104
. Wenyon, “The Incidence and Etiology of Malaria in Macedonia,” 83–277.

105
. Hackett,
Malaria in Europe
, 2.

106
. Bwire,
Bugs in Armor
, 40.

107
. A. B. Knudsen and R. Slooff, “Vector-borne Disease Problems in Rapid Urbanization: New Approaches to Vector Control,”
Bulletin of the World Health Organization
70, no. 1 (1992): 1–6.

108
. Sir Malcolm Watson,
African Highway: The Battle for Health in Central Africa
(London: John Murray Publishers, 1953), 36.

109
. Ibid., 24.

110
. Ibid., 13–14.

111
. Ibid., 26.

112
. Steven Feierman, “Struggles for Control: The Social Roots of Health and Healing in Modern Africa,”
African Studies Review
28, no. 2/3 ( June–September 1985): 119.

113
. Watson,
African Highway
, 4, 174.

114
. Pim Martens and Lisbeth Hall, “Malaria on the Move: Human Population Movement and Malaria Transmission,”
Emerging Infectious Diseases
6, no. 2 (March–April 2000): 103–109.

115
. Amy Yomiko Vittor et al., “The Effect of Deforestation on the Human-Biting Rate of
Anopheles Darlingi
, the Primary Vector of
Falciparum
Malaria in the Peruvian Amazon,”
American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene
74, no. 1 (2005): 676–80.

116
. Marcia Caldas de Castro et al., “Malaria Risk on the Amazon Frontier,”
PNAS
103, no. 7 (February 14, 2006): 2452–57; Wanderli P. Tadei et al., “Ecologic Observations on Anopheline Vectors of Malaria in the Brazilian Amazon,”
American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene
59, no. 2 (1998): 325–35.

117
. Amy Yomiko Vittor et al., “The Effect of Deforestation on the Human-Biting Rate of
Anopheles Darlingi
, the Primary Vector of
Falciparum
Malaria in the Peruvian Amazon,” 3–11.

118
. Asnakew Kebede et al., “New Evidence of the Effects of Agro-ecologic Change on Malaria Transmission,”
American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene
73, no. 4 (2005): 676–80.

119
. Deepa Suryanarayan, “Malaria Epidemic Set to Sting Mumbai,”
Daily News and Analysis
, August 30, 2006.

120
. Swatee Kher, “Malaria on the Rise, but No Outbreak,” Express India online, July 5, 2006.

121
. Indo-Asian News Service, “299 Malaria Deaths, 19 Dengue Deaths This Year in India,” FreshNews.in, September 3, 2008; Sumitra Deb Roy, “Malaria Becoming Harder to Treat,”
Daily News and Analysis
(India), August 24, 2008; Sumitra Deb Roy, “2 More Malaria Deaths in 24 Hrs,”
Daily News and Analysis
(India), August 26, 2008.

122
. Fred Pearce, “Science: It Bites, It Kills, It’s Coming to Essex,”
The Independent
(London), February 18, 2000.

123
. “Climate Change Brings Back Malaria,” ANSA.it, February 1, 2007.

124
. Alastair McIndoe, “Malaria Goes Global as the World Gets Warmer,”
The Straits Times
(Singapore), April 29, 2008.

125
. See, for example, Paul Reiter et al., “Global Warming and Malaria: A Call for Accuracy,”
The Lancet
4 ( June 2004): 323–24.

126
. R. Sari Kovats et al., “El Niño and Health,”
Lancet
362, no. 9394 (November 1, 2003): 1481–89.

127
. Ian Fisher, “Kisii Journal: Malaria, a Swamp Dweller, Finds a Hillier Home,”
New York Times
, July 21, 1999.

128
. Ibid.

129
. Andrew K. Githenko and William Ndegwa, “Predicting Malaria Epidemics in the Kenyan Highlands Using Climate Data: A Tool for Decision Makers,”
Global Change and Human Health
2, no. 1 (2001): 54–63.

130
. Ibid., 54–63.

131
. Hong Chen et al., “New Records of
Anopheles arabiensis
Breeding on the Mount Kenya Highlands Indicate Indigenous Malaria Transmission,”
Malaria Journal
5 (March 7, 2006): 17; and Harold Ayodo, “Malaria Infections on the Rise,”
The Standard
, October 5, 2006.

132
. Joan H. Bryan et al., “Malaria Transmission and Climate Change in Australia,”
Medical Journal of Australia
164 (1996): 345–47; John Walker, “Malaria in a Changing World: An Australian Perspective,”
International Journal of Parasitology
28 (1998): 947–53.

   
1
. Interview with John Thomas, BASF, December 6, 2005

   
2
. David A. Warrell and Herbert M. Gilles, eds.,
Essential Malariology
, 4th ed. (London: Hodder Arnold, 2002), 305–309.

   
3
. Institute of Medicine,
Saving Lives, Buying Time: Economics of Malaria Drugs in an Age of Resistance
(Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press, 2004), 212.

   
4
. “Herbicide Hope for Malaria,” BBC News, January 31, 2003.

   
5
. Gerald Tenywa, “Chimps Eat Herbs to Cure Malaria,”
AllAfrica.com
, January 19, 2007; information on
Vernonia amygdalina
at
www.fao.org
.

   
6
. Nina L. Etkin, “The Co-evolution of People, Plants, and Parasites: Biological and Cultural Adaptations to Malaria,”
Proceedings of the Nutrition Society
62 (2003): 311–17.

   
7
. Fiammetta Rocco,
The Miraculous Fever-Tree: Malaria and the Quest for a Cure That Changed the World
(New York: HarperCollins, 2003), 77.

   
8
. Alan Crozier et al., eds.,
Plant Secondary Metabolites: Occurrence, Structure and Role in the Human Diet
(Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing, 2006), 102.

   
9
. Warrell and Gilles, eds.,
Essential Malariology
, 4th ed., 280–81.

10
. Erwin H. Ackerknecht,
Malaria in the Upper Mississippi Valley, 1760–1900
(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1945), 107.

11
. Quoted in Jon Kukla, “Kentish Agues and American Distempers: The Transmission of Malaria from England to Virginia in the Seventeenth Century,”
Southern Studies
25, no. 2 (Summer 1986): 135–47.

12
. Frank M. Snowden,
The Conquest of Malaria: Italy, 1900–1962
(New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2006), 46.

13
. Philip D. Curtin,
Disease and Empire: The Health of European Troops in the Conquest of Africa
(Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 58.

 
14
. Quoted in Patrick Brantlinger, “Victorians and Africans: The Genealogy of the Myth of the Dark Continent,”
Critical Inquiry
12, no. 1 (Autumn 1985): 166–203.

 
15
. Rocco,
The Miraculous Fever-Tree
, 77.

 
16
. Roy Porter,
The Greatest Benefit to Mankind: A Medical History of Humanity
(New York: W. W. Norton, 1997), 230.

 
17
. Paul Reiter, “From Shakespeare to Defoe: Malaria in England in the Little Ice Age,”
Emerging Infectious Diseases
6, no. 1 ( January–February 2000): 1–11.

 
18
. Mark Honigsbaum,
The Fever Trail: In Search of the Cure for Malaria
(Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2001), 34; Reiter, “From Shakespeare to Defoe,” 1–11.

 
19
. Charles Morrow Wilson, “Quinine: Reborn in Our Hemisphere,”
Harper’s
, August 1943.

 
20
. Rocco,
The Miraculous Fever-Tree
, 225–30.

 
21
. Oliver Wendell Holmes,
Boylston Prize Dissertations for the Years 1836 and 1837
(Boston: Charles C. Little and James Brown, 1838), 30.

 
22
. Letter from David Livingstone to Dr. James Ormiston McWilliam, November 28, 1860, published in
Transactions of the Epidemiological Society of London
, 1860, available at
www.livingstoneonline.ucl.ac.uk
.

 
23
. Ibid.

 
24
. Physicians in the United States recommended the antimalarial properties of coffee as late as 1884. “One wonders whether this supposed virtue of coffee was not instrumental in converting the Americans from tea to coffee drinking.” Ackerknecht,
Malaria in the Upper Mississippi Valley, 1760–1900
, 123.

 
25
. Honigsbaum,
The Fever Trail
, 57.

 
26
. Ackerknecht,
Malaria in the Upper Mississippi Valley, 1760–1900
, 113. Converted into 2006 dollars using inflation calculator at
www.westegg.com/inflation/
.

 
27
. Ibid., 120.

 
28
. Rocco,
The Miraculous Fever-Tree
, 249.

 
29
. Norman Taylor,
Cinchona in Java: The Story of Quinine
(New York: Greenberg, 1945), 50.