The Fever: How Malaria Has Ruled Humankind for 500,000 Years (47 page)

 
58
. Greer Williams,
The Plague Killers: Untold Stories of Three Great Campaigns Against Disease
(New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1969), 175.

 
59
. J. A. Nájera, “Malaria and the Work of the WHO,”
Bulletin of the World Health Organization
67, no. 3 (1989): 229–43.

 
60
. Ibid.

 
61
. Socrates Litsios, “Malaria and International Health Organizations,” prepared for “Philanthropic Foundations and the Globalization of Scientific Medicine,” Quinnipiac University, November 6–18, 2003, quoting WHO, Eighth World Health Assembly, Mexico, May 10–27, 1955. official Records of the WHO, No. 63: 205.

 
62
. James L. A. Webb,
Humanity’s Burden: A Global History of Malaria
(New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 167; “Soviet Aid Offer on Malaria Cited,”
New York Times
, January 12, 1958.

 
63
. R. M. Packard, “‘No Other Logical Choice’: Global Malaria Eradication and the Politics of International Health in the Post-war Era,”
Parassitologia
40 (1998), 217–29.

 
64
. “Malaria Eradication,” Report and Recommendations of the International Development Advisory Board, Washington, D.C., April 13, 1956.

 
65
. Harry Cleaver, “Malaria and the Political Economy of Public Health,”
International Journal of Health Services
7, no. 4 (1977): 557–79.

 
66
. “Malaria Eradication.”

 
67
. Ibid.

 
68
. Ibid.

 
69
. G. Sambasivan, “Roundtable Discussion: WHO’s Passive Role,”
World Health Forum
1, nos. 1, 2 (1980): 8–33.

 
70
. “Mosquitoes Developing an Armor Against DDT After 9-year War,”
New York Times
, March 14, 1952.

 
71
. Robert K. Plumb, “Dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane,”
New York Times
, January 16, 1955.

 
72
. Spielman and D’Antonio,
Mosquito
, 150; Laurie Garrett,
The Coming Plague: Newly Emerging Diseases in a World Out of Balance
(New York: Penguin Books, 1994), 50; C. P. Gilmore, “Malaria Wins Round 2,”
New York Times,
September 25, 1966; Jean Mouchet, “Agriculture and Vector Resistance,”
Insect Science and Its Application
9, no. 3 (1988): 297–302; Harrison,
Mosquitoes, Malaria and Man
, 295; U. D’Alessandro and H. Buttiëns, “History and Importance of Antimalarial Drug Resistance,”
Tropical Medicine and International Health
6, no. 11 (November 2001): 845–48.

 
73
. William G. Brogdon and Janet C. McAllister, “Insecticide Resistance and Vector Control,”
Emerging Infectious Diseases
4, no. 4 (October–December 1998): 605–13.

 
74
. Brown, “Malaria,
Miseria,
and Underpopulation in Sardinia,” 239–54.

 
75
. Willard H. Wright,
Forty Years of Tropical Medicine Research: A History of the Gorgas Memorial Institute of Tropical and Preventive Medicine, Inc., and the Gorgas Memorial Laboratory
(Baltimore: Reese Press, 1970), 102.

 
76
. In fact, the problem of resistant mosquitoes wasn’t quite as straightforward as Russell and IDAB suggested. Under a DDT onslaught, any mosquito that could avoid fatal DDT poisoning had a strong advantage, true. The ones that could imperviously absorb the compound and fly away were truly dangerous, since they could both resist the DDT and effectively transmit malaria. But there were others. Many
Anopheles
mosquitoes found DDT-treated surfaces irritating and simply avoided them altogether, opting to bite or rest, or both, out of doors, free from the enervating chemical. In one study, as many as three out of five mosquitoes actively avoided DDT-treated surfaces. Theoretically these DDT-repelled mosquitoes had just as much chance of mothering battalions of progeny as the DDT-resistant ones, but unlike the resistant mosquitoes, their survival tactic allowed them much less opportunity to bite and infect human beings with malaria. In other words, even if DDT failed to kill sufficient numbers of mosquitoes, it could still repel sufficient numbers to effect the same result: a cessation of malaria transmission. “Malaria eradication,” Report and Recommendations of the International Development Advisory Board, Washington, D.C., April 13, 1956.

 
77
. Williams,
The Plague Killers
, 175–76; Spielman et al., “Time Limitation and the Role of Research,” 6–19.

 
78
. Dwight D. Eisenhower, “Annual Message to the Congress on the State of the
Union,” January 9, 1958, via the American Presidency Project,
www.american presidency.org
.

 
79
. Howard A. Rusk, “Aiding Fight on Malaria,”
New York Times
, December 15, 1957.

 
80
. “U.S. Will Help India Eradicate Malaria,”
New York Times
, December 6, 1957.

 
81
. M. A. Farid, “The Malaria Programme: From Euphoria to Anarchy,”
World Health Forum
1, no. 1 (1980): 8–33; “U.S. Will Help India Eradicate Malaria.”

 
82
. Robert S. Desowitz,
The Malaria Capers: More Tales of Parasites and People, Research and Reality
(New York: W. W. Norton, 1991), 214; M.G. Candau, “World Acts to Combat Malaria,”
New York Times
, March 19, 1960.

 
83
. Packard,
The Making of a Tropical Disease
, 157.

 
84
. “WHO Reports 11 Countries Have Eradicated Malaria,”
New York Times
, January 24, 1960; Candau, “World Acts to Combat Malaria.”

 
85
. Desowitz,
The Malaria Capers
, 14; Amy Yomiko Vittor et al., “The effect of Deforestation on the Human-biting Rate of
Anopheles darlingi,
the Primary Vector of
Falciparum
Malaria in the Peruvian Amazon,”
American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene
74, no. 1 (2006): 3–11.

 
86
. Harrison,
Mosquitoes, Malaria and Man
, 242–43; Gilmore, “Malaria Wins Round 2.”

 
87
. Julian de Zulueta and François Lachance, “A Malaria-Control Experiment in the Interior of Borneo,”
Bulletin of the World Health Organization
15 (1956): 673–93.

 
88
. Brown, “Malaria,
Miseria,
and Underpopulation in Sardinia,” 239–54.

 
89
. Gilmore, “Malaria Wins Round 2.”

 
90
. De Zulueta and Lachance, “A Malaria-Control Experiment in the Interior of Borneo,” 673–93.

 
91
. Spielman and D’Antonio,
Mosquito
, 172; “Dr. Paul F. Russell, 89; Specialist on Malaria,”
New York Times
, November 9, 1983.

 
92
. Garrett,
The Coming Plague
, 49.

 
93
. T. H. Weller, “World Health in a Changing World,”
Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene
77, suppl. (April 1974): 54–61.

 
94
. Geoffrey M. Jeffery, “Malaria Control in the Twentieth Century,”
American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene
24, no. 3 (1976): 361–71.

 
95
. F. Y. Cheng, “Deterioration of Thatch Roofs by Moth Larvae after House Spraying in the Course of a Malaria Eradication Programme in North Borneo,”
Bulletin of the World Health Organization
28 (1963): 136–37.

 
96
. Gordon R. Conway, “Ecological Aspects of Pest Control in Malaysia,” from J. T. Farvar and J. P. Milton, eds.,
The Careless Technology: Ecology and International Development
(New York: Natural History Press, 1972).

 
97
. Arthur Brown, “Personal Experiences in the Malaria Eradication Campaign, 1955–1962,”
Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine
95, no. 3 (March 2002): 154–56.

 
98
. D. K. Visnawathan,
The Conquest of Malaria in India: An Indo-American Cooperative Effort
(Madras, India: Company Law Institute Press, 195), cited in Harrison,
Mosquitoes, Malaria and Man
, 241.

 
99
. Tom Harrisson, “Operation Cat-drop,”
Animals
5 (1965): 512–13.

100
. R.A.F.
Operations Record Book
, Changi, Singapore, March 1960.

101
. R. M. Packard, “Malaria Dreams: Postwar Visions of Health and Development in the Third World,”
Medical Anthropology
17 (1997): 179–96.

102
. Visnawathan,
The Conquest of Malaria in India
, 195, cited in Harrison,
Mosquitoes, Malaria and Man
, 241.

103
. T. C. Boyle wrote: “You should have seen them . . . the little parachutes and harnesses we’d tricked up, 14,000 of them, cats in every color of the rainbow, cats with one ear, no ears, half a tail, three-legged cats . . . all of them twirling down out of the sky like great big oversized snowflakes.” Boyle’s fictional fourteen thousand figure found its way into retellings of the Borneo story and was replicated widely. “As wonderful and touching and Disney-like this story is, it actually has nothing to do with the World Health Organization . . . The story has been reproduced and published in books, journals, and on the Internet, without any supporting evidence or references,” huffed the WHO librarian Thomas Allen when asked about it. “Once this cat got out of the bag, there was no getting it back in.” T. C. Boyle, “Top of the Food Chain,” in
Without a Hero: Stories
(New York: Viking, 1994); Carole Modis, “Operation Cat Drop,”
Quarterly News of the Association of Former WHO Staff
(April–June 2005); correspondence with Thomas Allen, January 15, 2008.

104
. Harrison,
Mosquitoes, Malaria and Man
, 244.

105
. Quoted in Gladwell, “The Mosquito Killer.”

 
106
. Harrison,
Mosquitoes, Malaria and Man
, 254.

107
. “DDT: Its Days as a Killer Are Numbered,”
New York Times
, November 16, 1969.

108
. Nájera, “Malaria and the Work of the WHO,”
Bulletin of the World Health Organization
67, no. 3 (1989): 229–43.

109
. Harrison,
Mosquitoes, Malaria, and Man
, 295.

110
. Spielman and D’Antonio,
Mosquito
, 161.

111
. Harrison,
Mosquitoes, Malaria and Man
, 248.

112
. G. Davidson and A. R. Zahar, “The Practical Implications of Resistance of Malaria Vectors to Insecticides,”
Bulletin of the World Health Organization
49 (1973): 475–83.

113
. Mario Pinotti, “Chemoprophylaxis of Malaria by the Association of an
Antimalarical [
sic
] Drug to the Sodium Chloride Used Daily in the Preparation of Meals,”
International Congresses of Tropical Medicine and Malaria
2 (1953): 248; Rostan de Rohan Loureiro Soares, “Sal Chloroquinado, Novo Metodo Deprofilaxia da Malaria,”
Revista Brasiliera de Medicina
( July 1955): 448.

114
. D. Payne, “Did Medicated Salt Hasten the Spread of Chloroquine Resistance in
Plasmodium falciparum
?”
Parasitology Today
4, no. 4 (1988).

115
. D’Alessandro and Buttiëns, “History and Importance of Antimalarial Drug Resistance.”

116
. Howard A. Rusk, “Health Projects Abroad,”
New York Times
, September 22, 1963.

117
. Packard, “Malaria Dreams,” 179–96.

118
. Brown, “Malaria,
Miseria,
and Underpopulation in Sardinia,” 239–54.

119
. Farley,
To Cast Out Disease
, 291.

120
. Brown, “Malaria,
Miseria,
and Underpopulation in Sardinia,” 239–54.