The Half Has Never Been Told: Slavery and the Making of American Capitalism (88 page)

14
. Roger Kennedy,
Mr. Jefferson’s Lost Cause: Land, Farmers, Slavery, and the Louisiana Purchase
(New York, 2003).

15
. Jefferson to Robert Livingston, April 18, 1802; Jon Kukla,
A Wilderness So Immense: The Louisiana Purchase and the Destiny of America
(New York, 2003), 235–259.

16
. DeConde,
Affair of Louisiana
, 161–166.

17
. P. L. Roederer,
Oeuvres du Comte P. L. Roederer
(Paris, 1854), 3:461; Comté Barbé-Marbois,
The History of Louisiana: Particularly of the Cession of That Colony to the United States of America
, trans. “By an American Citizen (William B. Lawrence)” (Philadelphia, 1830), 174–175, 263–264.

18
. Dubois,
Avengers of the New World
, 297–301.

19
. Christopher Brown,
Moral Capital: Foundations of British Abolitionism
(Chapel Hill, NC, 2006).

20
.
Annals of Congress
, 1806, 238; Donald Robinson,
Slavery in the Structure of American Politics, 1765–1820
(New York, 1970), 331; David Brion Davis,
Slavery and Human Progress
(New York, 1984), 162–163.

21
. DeConde,
Affair of Louisiana
, 205–206; Jared Bradley, ed.,
Interim Appointment: William C. C. Claiborne Letter Book, 1804–1805
(Baton Rouge, LA, 2003), 13; Alexander Hamilton, in
New-York Evening Post
, July 5, 1803,
Papers of Alexander Hamilton
, 26:129–136. An exception to historians’ cover-up: Henry Adams,
History of the Administrations of Jefferson and Madison
(New York, 1986 [Library of America]), 1:2, 20–22. Cf. Edward E. Baptist, “Hidden in Plain View: Haiti and the Louisiana Purchase,” in Elizabeth Hackshaw and Martin Munro, eds.,
Echoes of the Haitian Revolution in the Modern World
(Kingston, Jamaica, 2008).

22
. Peter J. Kastor,
Nation’s Crucible: The Louisiana Purchase and the Creation of America
(New Haven, CT, 2004); Lawrence Powell,
The Accidental City: Improvising New Orleans
(Cambridge, MA, 2012); Plumer,
Proceedings
, 223–224, notes three Louisiana French planters’ visits to Congress complaining about Claiborne.

23
. Berquin-Duvallon,
Travels in Louisiana
, 28–29, 80; Vincent Nolte,
Memoirs of Vincent Nolte
(New York, 1934); Sarah P. Russell, “Cultural Conflicts and Common Interests: The Making of the Sugar Planter Class in Louisiana, 1795–1853” (PhD diss., University of Maryland, 2000); Kenneth Aslakson, “The ‘Quadroon-Placage’ Myth of Antebellum New Orleans: Anglo-American (Mis)interpretations of a French-Caribbean Phenomenon,”
Journal of Social History
45 (2012): 709–734; Jennifer Spear,
Race, Sex, and Social Order in Early New Orleans
(Baltimore, 2009).

24
. Peter C. Hoffer,
The Treason Trials of Aaron Burr
(Lawrence, KS, 2008); James Madison to Gov. Claiborne, January 12, 1807, TP, 9:702.

25
. J. P. to J. Johnston, February 1, 1810, Folder 1, PALF; Adam Rothman,
Slave Country: American Expansion and the Origins of the Deep South
(Cambridge, MA, 2005).

26
. J. Carlyle Sitterston,
Sugar Country: The Cane Sugar Industry in the South, 1763–1950
(Lexington, KY, 1953), 3–11; Ira Berlin,
Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries of Slavery in North America
(Cambridge, MA, 1998), 325–357; Stoddard,
Sketches
, 332–333; C. C. Robin,
Voyages dans L’Intérieur de la Louisiane
, (Paris, 1807), 109–110; Russell, “Cultural Conflicts,” 55.

27
. James Pitot,
Observations of the Colony of Louisiana, from 1796 to 1802
(repr. Baton Rouge, LA, 1979), 9; Claiborne to President Jefferson, November 25, 1804, TP, 9:340; Gilbert Leonard to Claiborne, January 25, 1804, TP, 9:172. On Louisiana importing only a few thousand slaves before 1801 to 1804: TASTD; Rothman,
Slave Country
, 89–91.

28
. John Watkins to Claiborne, February 2, 1804, WCCC, 2:10–11; Claiborne to Madison, July 5, 1804, March 10, 1804, ibid.; cf. Claiborne to Albert Gallatin, May 8, 1804, ibid., 2:235–237, 25–26, 134;
Annals of Congress
, vol. 14, 1595–1608; W. E. B. DuBois,
Suppression of the African Slave-Trade to the United States
(New York, 1896), 89–90; James E. Scanlon, “A Sudden Conceit: Jefferson and the Louisiana Government Bill,”
Louisiana History
9 (1968): 139–162; Sarah P. Russell, “Ethnicity, Commerce, and Community on Lower Louisiana’s Plantation Frontier,”
Louisiana History
40 (1999): 396–399; Robinson,
Slavery in American Politics
, 398; Claiborne to President Jefferson, November 25, 1804, TP, 9:340; “Act for Organization of Orleans Territory,” March 26, 1804, TP, 9:202–213. Southerners and their congressional allies, including John Quincy Adams, defeated an effort to free all slaves imported into the territory.

29
. McMillin,
Final Victims
, Appendix B; Claiborne to Madison, May 8, 1804, WCCC, 2:134, 358–361; Claiborne to President Jefferson, November 25, 1804, TP, 9:340; Rothman,
Slave Country
, 92–95; Brown to Gallatin, December 11, 1805, TP, 9:545–547.

30
. Frederic Bancroft,
Slave-Trading in the Old South
(Baltimore, 1931), 300n19; Claiborne to A. Jackson, December 23, 1801; John Hutchings to Jackson, December 25, 1801, CAJ, 1:265, 266.

31
. Claiborne to R. Smith, May 15, 1809, WCCC, 4:354–355; Paul Lachance, “The 1809 Immigration of the St. Domingue Refugees,” in Carl Brasseaux and Glenn Conrad, eds.,
The Road to Louisiana: The Saint-Domingue Refugees, 1792–1809
(Lafayette, LA, 1992), 246–252; Paul Lachance, “The Foreign French,” in Arnold Hirsch and Joseph Logsdon, eds.,
Creole New Orleans: Race and Americanization
(Baton Rouge, LA, 1992), 101–130; Extrait des documents, 1804; Dautouville to Miltenberger, July 1806, both Miltenberger Papers, SHC. Some of the French nationals came to Cuba from Saint-Domingue shortly after 1791, and some as late as 1803. Some of those denominated as “slaves” in the migration to Louisiana had been transported to Cuba from Saint-Domingue, while others had been bought there as slaves in the up to eighteen years that French nationals had spent in Cuba. See Rebecca J. Scott, “Paper Thin: Freedom and Re-Enslavement in the Diaspora of the Haitian Revolution,”
Law and History Review
29, no. 4 (2011): 1061–1087.

32
. Claiborne to R. Smith, July 29, 1809, WCCC, 4:391–393.

33
. James Mather to Claiborne, July 18, 1809, WCCC, 4:387–409; Claiborne to Julien Poydras, May 29, 1809, ibid., 4:371–372; Claiborne to R. Smith, May 20, 1809, ibid., 4:363–367; Claiborne to William Savage, November 10, 1809, ibid., 5:4–6;
Annals of Congress
, 11th Cong., Pt. 1, 462–465, “House Debate on Emigrants from Cuba.”

34
. “Aux Arrivans de Cuba: On prendrait à loyer . . . une trentaine de nègres de hache & quelques négresses de travail,”
Moniteur de la Louisiane
, August 5, 1809; “Vente a L’Encan,” ibid., October 7, 1809; HALL, 60131, 54165; F. Carrere à Miltenberger, April 18, 1809, and Miltenberger to N. Fournier, September 27, 1809, Miltenberger Papers, SHC. Italics added.

35
. Don Dodd and Wynelle Dodd,
Historical Statistics of the United States
(Tuscaloosa, AL, 1973–1976); R. Claiborne to Madison, December 31, 1806, TP, 9:692–702.

36
.
LC
, November 19, 1810;
LG
, December 6, 1810, July 24, 1810.

37
. Quartier Générale, January 13, 1811, “Interrogation du Cupidon,” January 13, 1811, SCPOA; HALL; Thomas Marshall Thompson, “National Newspaper and Legislative Reactions to Louisiana’s Deslondes Slave Revolt of 1811,”
Louisiana History
33 (1992): 5–29; James H. Dormon, “The Persistent Specter: Slave Rebellion in Territorial Louisiana,”
Louisiana History
18 (1977): 389–404;
Richmond Enquirer
, February 22, 1811, reported as leader “Charles, a yellow fellow, the property of Mr. Andre”; LG, January 11, 1811; Albert Thrasher,
On to New Orleans! Louisiana’s Heroic 1811 Slave Revolt
(New Orleans, 1996), 297; Rothman,
Slave Country.

38
. Trial Augustin, February 25, 1811, SCPOA, 1811, no. 20; Glenn Conrad,
The German Coast: Abstracts of the Civil Records of St. Charles and St. John the Baptist Parishes, 1804–1812
(Lafayette, LA, 1981), 108.

39
. Claiborne to Wade Hampton, January 7 (1 & 2), 1811, WCCC, 5:91–92.

40
. Interrogation “Koock,” January 14, 1811, SCPOA; Mary Ann Sternberg,
Along the River Road: Past and Present on Louisiana’s Historic Byway
(Baton Rouge, LA, 1996), 130;
Moniteur
, January 15, 1811; Thrasher,
On to New Orleans
, 268.

41
. Jupiter interrogation from “Jugement du Nègre de M. Andry,” February 20, 1811, no. 17, SCPOA.

42
. Numbers from HALL; Deposition of Hermogène Trepagnier, SCPOA, no. 20.

43
. Thrasher,
On to New Orleans
, 119n42, n46, n49, 52–53.

44
.
Moniteur
, January 17, 1811.

45
. Destrehan’s compensation claim, SCPOA, 160.

46
.
Moniteur
, January 17, 1811; Manuel Andry to Claiborne, LC, January 15, 1811; Hampton to Sec. of War, January 16, 1811, TP, 9:918–919; Hampton to Claiborne, January 12, 1811, TP, 9:916–917.

47
. Conrad,
German Coast.

48
.
Moniteur
, January 17, 1811; Barthelemy compensation list from SCPOA; Samuel Hambleton to David Porter, January 15, 1811, in Stanley Engerman, Seymour Drescher, and Robert L. Paquette, eds.,
Slavery
(New York, 2001), 326.

49
. January 14, 1811, SCPOA:
“Amar, chef de brigandes, dénoncé comme tel par tous les autres brigandes, n’a pas peu répondre aux questions quand lui a adressées, parce qu’il l’était bless’e à la gorge, de manière à être pincé de l’usàge de la parole”
(Amar, chief of rebels, denounced as such by all the other rebels, was not able to respond to questions when asked, because he had been wounded in the throat, in such a way as to prevent him from speaking.”

50
. SCPOA, “State of the Work Forces”; Thrasher,
On to New Orleans
, 64–65.

51
. SCPOA Act 2, 3–4.

52
. TP, 9:923, 702; and a key point of Rothman,
Slave Country.

53
. Claiborne to Andry, December 24, 1811, WCCC, 6:15; Junius P. Rodriguez, “Always ‘En Garde’: The Effect of Rebellion upon the Louisiana Mentality, 1811–1815,”
Louisiana History
33, no. 4 (1992): 399–416. Just to be certain that free people of color could not assist rebellion, Louisiana passed new laws that increased taxes on free men of color and forbade them to carry weapons—even walking sticks, which could hide saber blades.

54
. Matthew Mason,
Slavery and Politics in the Early American Republic
(Chapel Hill, NC, 2006); Speech of Josiah Quincy,
Annals
, 11th Cong., 3rd sess., 525, 540.