The Happiness of Pursuit: What Neuroscience Can Teach Us About the Good Life (31 page)
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Authors: Shimon Edelman
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6
For a general introduction to CO-EVOLUTION, see Jablonka and Lamb (2005). The co-evolution of human languages and of
Homo sapiens
is discussed by Morten Christiansen and Nick Chater (2008), whose analysis may be compared to the standard genetics account of language, culture, and intelligence offered by Steven Pinker (2010). Thomas Scott-Phillips and Simon Kirby (2010) describe controlled studies of the role of cultural transmission in language evolution. The functional repercussions of cultural co-evolution in the social and cognitive domains are discussed by Andy Clark (1998).
For a general introduction to CO-EVOLUTION, see Jablonka and Lamb (2005). The co-evolution of human languages and of
Homo sapiens
is discussed by Morten Christiansen and Nick Chater (2008), whose analysis may be compared to the standard genetics account of language, culture, and intelligence offered by Steven Pinker (2010). Thomas Scott-Phillips and Simon Kirby (2010) describe controlled studies of the role of cultural transmission in language evolution. The functional repercussions of cultural co-evolution in the social and cognitive domains are discussed by Andy Clark (1998).
7
The view of LANGUAGE AS A GAME is due to Wittgenstein (1958).
The view of LANGUAGE AS A GAME is due to Wittgenstein (1958).
8
This DIALOGUE between Romeo and Juliet is from act I, scene V. The author of the play almost convinces us that this is how teenagers talk to each other.
This DIALOGUE between Romeo and Juliet is from act I, scene V. The author of the play almost convinces us that this is how teenagers talk to each other.
9
The ubiquity of SERIAL ORDER IN BEHAVIOR was pointed out famously by Karl Lashley (1951). In vocal articulation, it is speech “gestures” that are combinatorial dynamical action units (Goldstein et al. 2007). In sign language, much use is made of the spatial layout of the extrapersonal space shared by the signer and the spectator, but these signs too are meticulously sequenced. Ann Senghas, Sotaro Kita, and Aslı Özyürek (2004) document the increasingly digital nature of the Nicaraguan sign language as it evolved over successive generations of signers.
The ubiquity of SERIAL ORDER IN BEHAVIOR was pointed out famously by Karl Lashley (1951). In vocal articulation, it is speech “gestures” that are combinatorial dynamical action units (Goldstein et al. 2007). In sign language, much use is made of the spatial layout of the extrapersonal space shared by the signer and the spectator, but these signs too are meticulously sequenced. Ann Senghas, Sotaro Kita, and Aslı Özyürek (2004) document the increasingly digital nature of the Nicaraguan sign language as it evolved over successive generations of signers.
10
The importance of LANGUAGE BEING DIGITAL, which is one of the very few of its universal properties (Evans and Levinson 2009), is noted and analyzed in Edelman (2008b, 2008c).
The importance of LANGUAGE BEING DIGITAL, which is one of the very few of its universal properties (Evans and Levinson 2009), is noted and analyzed in Edelman (2008b, 2008c).
11
Ben-Ami Scharfstein (2009), writing on aesthetics, draws attention to the PLEASURE that people derive from human speech.
Ben-Ami Scharfstein (2009), writing on aesthetics, draws attention to the PLEASURE that people derive from human speech.
12
Douglas Oxley and his colleagues (2008) report a correlation between NOVELTY aversion and conservatism; Michael Cohen and colleagues (2009) relate novelty seeking to individual differences in brain anatomy.
Douglas Oxley and his colleagues (2008) report a correlation between NOVELTY aversion and conservatism; Michael Cohen and colleagues (2009) relate novelty seeking to individual differences in brain anatomy.
13
Sonja Lyubomirsky, Kennon Sheldon, and David Schkade (2005) discuss the TRANSIENT NATURE OF AFFECT and ways of countering it; see also Edelman (2008a), ch. 10.
Sonja Lyubomirsky, Kennon Sheldon, and David Schkade (2005) discuss the TRANSIENT NATURE OF AFFECT and ways of countering it; see also Edelman (2008a), ch. 10.
14
Indeed, when I first saw it, I did not yet know the scientific name of the SMOKE TREE, or “corona de Christo”; it is
Psorothamnus spin-osus
. The snake was a Western shovel-nose,
Chionactis occipitalis
.
Indeed, when I first saw it, I did not yet know the scientific name of the SMOKE TREE, or “corona de Christo”; it is
Psorothamnus spin-osus
. The snake was a Western shovel-nose,
Chionactis occipitalis
.
15
Michael Anderson (2010) offers a thorough review of REUSE in brain evolution.
Michael Anderson (2010) offers a thorough review of REUSE in brain evolution.
16
The RAILROAD SIMILE for language is borrowed from Edelman (2008a), ch. 7.
The RAILROAD SIMILE for language is borrowed from Edelman (2008a), ch. 7.
17
To appreciate fully the fact that AN UTTERANCE MERELY HINTS AT MEANING, consider the following sentence from
Consider Phlebas
(1987), the first space opera in the great Culture series by Iain M. Banks:
To appreciate fully the fact that AN UTTERANCE MERELY HINTS AT MEANING, consider the following sentence from
Consider Phlebas
(1987), the first space opera in the great Culture series by Iain M. Banks:
The Jinmoti of Bozlen Two kill the hereditary ritual assassins of the new Yearking’s immediate family by drowning them in the tears of the Continental Empathaur in its Sadness Season.
This sentence, which is part of an internal monologue of one of the novel’s protagonists, is completely disconnected from its immediate context and is offered no gloss. Yet, a human reader with a reasonably extensive exposure to literature (in particular, historical novels and perhaps science fiction) not only understands what the sentence implies but probably also feels for the king and for his doomed assassins, as well as for the hapless Empathaur. In one deft move, Banks outlines what may be a key characteristic of an entire planetary civilization and makes the reader weigh, even if just for a moment, whether or not being a king is a happy job. The book’s title, by the way, is a reference to T. S. Eliot’s
The Waste Land
, which brings into the picture a host of connotations by invoking a poem that itself broke all records in this respect when it was first published in 1922. To me, the Bozlen Two customs also connote the Wicker Queen character from Michael Swanwick’s outstanding book
The Iron Dragon’s Daughter
(1993).
The Waste Land
, which brings into the picture a host of connotations by invoking a poem that itself broke all records in this respect when it was first published in 1922. To me, the Bozlen Two customs also connote the Wicker Queen character from Michael Swanwick’s outstanding book
The Iron Dragon’s Daughter
(1993).
18
The problematic theoretical status of THE MEANING OF “MEANING” is unfortunate: semantics is the one branch of linguistics to which all others report. Equally unfortunate is the custom of dismissing shades of meaning by saying that they are “merely semantic.” The argument that this phrase embodies is self-undermining: by revealing the utterers’ fundamental lack of care for, or understanding of, what they say, it places under suspicion everything they profess, including the dismissal of semantics.
The problematic theoretical status of THE MEANING OF “MEANING” is unfortunate: semantics is the one branch of linguistics to which all others report. Equally unfortunate is the custom of dismissing shades of meaning by saying that they are “merely semantic.” The argument that this phrase embodies is self-undermining: by revealing the utterers’ fundamental lack of care for, or understanding of, what they say, it places under suspicion everything they profess, including the dismissal of semantics.
19
Greg Stephens, Lauren Silbert, and Uri Hasson (2010) report evidence of DYNAMIC COORDINATION between the speaker’s and the listener’s brain activity patterns.
Greg Stephens, Lauren Silbert, and Uri Hasson (2010) report evidence of DYNAMIC COORDINATION between the speaker’s and the listener’s brain activity patterns.
20
Studies of EMBODIED LANGUAGE PROCESSING (see, for example, Speer et al. 2009) show that listening to stories and experiencing what they describe give rise to similar brain processes.
Studies of EMBODIED LANGUAGE PROCESSING (see, for example, Speer et al. 2009) show that listening to stories and experiencing what they describe give rise to similar brain processes.
21
According to Mikhail Bakhtin (quoted in Wertsch 1998), to make an utterance is to “appropriate the words of others and populate them with one’s own intention.” Edelman (2008a, ch. 7) argues that the knowledge structure that supports this process is a CONSTRUCTION GRAMMAR (Goldberg 2005). Similar structures support behavior in general (Edelman 2011a).
According to Mikhail Bakhtin (quoted in Wertsch 1998), to make an utterance is to “appropriate the words of others and populate them with one’s own intention.” Edelman (2008a, ch. 7) argues that the knowledge structure that supports this process is a CONSTRUCTION GRAMMAR (Goldberg 2005). Similar structures support behavior in general (Edelman 2011a).
22
Psycholinguistic studies suggest that SEMANTICS IS SUBJECTIVE (see, for example, Stenning and van Lambalgen 2008). There is one and only one situation in which meaning is universal and immutable: inside a closed formal system such as deductive logic or, more generally, mathematics. In all other situations—that is, in all of science and all of what we call “the real world”—things are open to multiple interpretations. We should remember, however, that in a formal system too provability and truth need not coincide, as shown by Gödel (for an entertaining and insightful introduction to these issues, see Hofstadter 1979).
Psycholinguistic studies suggest that SEMANTICS IS SUBJECTIVE (see, for example, Stenning and van Lambalgen 2008). There is one and only one situation in which meaning is universal and immutable: inside a closed formal system such as deductive logic or, more generally, mathematics. In all other situations—that is, in all of science and all of what we call “the real world”—things are open to multiple interpretations. We should remember, however, that in a formal system too provability and truth need not coincide, as shown by Gödel (for an entertaining and insightful introduction to these issues, see Hofstadter 1979).
23
WITTGENSTEIN (1958), part I, §525; part I, §534; part II, §VI.
WITTGENSTEIN (1958), part I, §525; part I, §534; part II, §VI.
24
Because different people encounter linguistic constructions in somewhat different sets of contexts and may distill out of them somewhat different grammars of experience, one person’s “multitude of familiar paths” through language is likely to differ from another’s. These INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES may be more pronounced on the fringes of humanity’s communal body of language—in linguistic games that involve passing around rare or complicated constructions, or in specialized games that are held in various domains of expertise.
Because different people encounter linguistic constructions in somewhat different sets of contexts and may distill out of them somewhat different grammars of experience, one person’s “multitude of familiar paths” through language is likely to differ from another’s. These INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES may be more pronounced on the fringes of humanity’s communal body of language—in linguistic games that involve passing around rare or complicated constructions, or in specialized games that are held in various domains of expertise.
25
The logical process of DEDUCTION, which is the foundation of mathematics, consists of proving theorems from premises treated as axioms. Deduction is sound, but cannot generate new knowledge that is not implicit in the premises. In comparison, INDUCTION, which is the basis of all science, generates new knowledge by treating statistical patterns in data as rules that extend to new cases. In that respect, as noted by Hume (1740, part IV, section I), “all knowledge resolves itself into probability.”
The logical process of DEDUCTION, which is the foundation of mathematics, consists of proving theorems from premises treated as axioms. Deduction is sound, but cannot generate new knowledge that is not implicit in the premises. In comparison, INDUCTION, which is the basis of all science, generates new knowledge by treating statistical patterns in data as rules that extend to new cases. In that respect, as noted by Hume (1740, part IV, section I), “all knowledge resolves itself into probability.”
26
The William James quote is from James (1890), p. 488.
The William James quote is from James (1890), p. 488.
27
Different LANGUAGES carve the space of possibilities differently and employ different sets of constructions; even such seemingly basic categories as noun and verb are not the same across languages (Evans and Levinson 2009). In this respect, the fantasy of Jorge Luis Borges, “Tlön, Uqbar, Orbis Tertius” (1941/1962b, p. 33), does not sound too implausible: “In the languages of the southern hemisphere of Tlön there are no nouns, only verbs; in those of the northern hemisphere, the noun is formed by an accumulation of adjectives.” The following trait of another of his inventions is, however, not found in any human language: “There are objects composed of two terms, one of visual and another of auditory character: the colour of the rising sun and the far-away cry of a bird.”
Different LANGUAGES carve the space of possibilities differently and employ different sets of constructions; even such seemingly basic categories as noun and verb are not the same across languages (Evans and Levinson 2009). In this respect, the fantasy of Jorge Luis Borges, “Tlön, Uqbar, Orbis Tertius” (1941/1962b, p. 33), does not sound too implausible: “In the languages of the southern hemisphere of Tlön there are no nouns, only verbs; in those of the northern hemisphere, the noun is formed by an accumulation of adjectives.” The following trait of another of his inventions is, however, not found in any human language: “There are objects composed of two terms, one of visual and another of auditory character: the colour of the rising sun and the far-away cry of a bird.”
Learning the proper referents of words is a problem that in principle is severely underconstrained (Quine 1960). The process through which babies solve it is best characterized as what Charles Sanders Peirce (1868, ms. 692) called “ABDUCTION,” or informed guessing: “But we must conquer the truth by guessing, or not at all” (Eco and Sebeok 1988; cf. Sebeok and Sebeok 1981). In a Bayesian formulation, abduction corresponds to evidential reasoning (Edelman 2008a, ch. 8).
28
The WHOLE-OBJECT BIAS in word referent learning was discovered by Ellen Markman (1989). Infants tend to associate a new verbal label first with the most salient novel shape present, then with texture and color.
The WHOLE-OBJECT BIAS in word referent learning was discovered by Ellen Markman (1989). Infants tend to associate a new verbal label first with the most salient novel shape present, then with texture and color.
29
Regarding the role of DEPARTURE FROM EQUIPROBABILITY, Zellig Harris (1991, p. 32) writes: “It is an essential property of language that the combinations of words and utterances are not all equiprobable. It follows that whatever else there is to be said about the form of language, a fundamental task is to state the departures from equiprobability in sound- and word-sequences.”
Regarding the role of DEPARTURE FROM EQUIPROBABILITY, Zellig Harris (1991, p. 32) writes: “It is an essential property of language that the combinations of words and utterances are not all equiprobable. It follows that whatever else there is to be said about the form of language, a fundamental task is to state the departures from equiprobability in sound- and word-sequences.”
30
In Fitzgerald’s English translation of
The Odyssey
, a different word (“long”) is repeated in this passage, which masterfully approximates the effect of the repetition in the original Greek.
In Fitzgerald’s English translation of
The Odyssey
, a different word (“long”) is repeated in this passage, which masterfully approximates the effect of the repetition in the original Greek.
31
Phonemes too can be discovered by the same ALIGN-AND-COMPARE procedure (Edelman 2008a, ch. 7). For a sample of empirical studies of this issue, see Onnis, Waterfall, and Edelman (2008), and Saffran, Aslin, and Newport (1996); Saffran and Wilson (2003); for a general theoretical framework, see Goldstein et al. (2010).
Phonemes too can be discovered by the same ALIGN-AND-COMPARE procedure (Edelman 2008a, ch. 7). For a sample of empirical studies of this issue, see Onnis, Waterfall, and Edelman (2008), and Saffran, Aslin, and Newport (1996); Saffran and Wilson (2003); for a general theoretical framework, see Goldstein et al. (2010).
32
VARIATION SETS appear in child-directed speech with approximately the same frequency in all languages that have been examined (Waterfall and Edelman 2009). See Waterfall et al. (2010) for a detailed study of variation sets in English, and Goldstein et al. (2010) for a theoretical discussion.
VARIATION SETS appear in child-directed speech with approximately the same frequency in all languages that have been examined (Waterfall and Edelman 2009). See Waterfall et al. (2010) for a detailed study of variation sets in English, and Goldstein et al. (2010) for a theoretical discussion.
33
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES in comprehension are widespread and profound (Chipere 2001; Dabrowska and Street 2006); they depend, among other factors, on the socioeconomic background of the subject (Hackman, Farah, and Meaney 2010; Hoff 2003). It is becoming increasingly clear that parents’ depression affects caregiving, which in turn affects children’s language development (Stein et al. 2008), in particular vocabulary (Paulson, Keefe, and Leiferman 2009). The nuances of timing and social feedback that mediate those effects are beginning to be understood (Goldstein et al. 2010). It should be noted that children’s language abilities at age five predict life outcomes decades later (Schoon et al. 2010).
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES in comprehension are widespread and profound (Chipere 2001; Dabrowska and Street 2006); they depend, among other factors, on the socioeconomic background of the subject (Hackman, Farah, and Meaney 2010; Hoff 2003). It is becoming increasingly clear that parents’ depression affects caregiving, which in turn affects children’s language development (Stein et al. 2008), in particular vocabulary (Paulson, Keefe, and Leiferman 2009). The nuances of timing and social feedback that mediate those effects are beginning to be understood (Goldstein et al. 2010). It should be noted that children’s language abilities at age five predict life outcomes decades later (Schoon et al. 2010).
34
The DIALOGUE is from the Santa Barbara Corpus of spoken English (SBC015: 849.456–856.005); it is quoted from Du Bois (forthcoming).
The DIALOGUE is from the Santa Barbara Corpus of spoken English (SBC015: 849.456–856.005); it is quoted from Du Bois (forthcoming).
35
The imaging study that demonstrated brain COORDINATION between speakers and listeners is Stephens et al. (2010).
NOTES TO CHAPTER 6The imaging study that demonstrated brain COORDINATION between speakers and listeners is Stephens et al. (2010).
1
In Buddhist philosophy, the technical term for the concept that I chose to render as “the web of cause and effect” is INTERDEPENDENT CO-ORIGINATION—the principle according to which nothing in the mental domain (which includes the mind’s representation of the world, such as it is) is uncaused or is without origin. Nāgārjuna extends this to the universe in general, thus arriving at the emptiness doctrine, which states that nothing has existence in itself; rather, everything is defined by its place in the web of cause and effect (Gier and Kjellberg 2004).
In Buddhist philosophy, the technical term for the concept that I chose to render as “the web of cause and effect” is INTERDEPENDENT CO-ORIGINATION—the principle according to which nothing in the mental domain (which includes the mind’s representation of the world, such as it is) is uncaused or is without origin. Nāgārjuna extends this to the universe in general, thus arriving at the emptiness doctrine, which states that nothing has existence in itself; rather, everything is defined by its place in the web of cause and effect (Gier and Kjellberg 2004).
2
Regarding BRAIN DYNAMICS, Lashley (1951, p. 153) writes: “I can best illustrate this conception of nervous action by picturing the brain as the surface of a lake.” The dynamics of disturbances in a body of water can be used, by the way, to form a spatial representation of its layout (Buckingham, Potter, and Epifanio 1996).
Regarding BRAIN DYNAMICS, Lashley (1951, p. 153) writes: “I can best illustrate this conception of nervous action by picturing the brain as the surface of a lake.” The dynamics of disturbances in a body of water can be used, by the way, to form a spatial representation of its layout (Buckingham, Potter, and Epifanio 1996).
3
The best expression of the world’s predictability in this respect is David Marr’s (1970, pp. 150–151) FUNDAMENTAL HYPOTHESIS: “Where instances of a particular collection of intrinsic properties (i.e., properties already diagnosed from sensory information) tend to be grouped such that if some are present, most are, then other useful properties are likely to exist which generalize over such instances. Further, properties often are grouped in this way.” This can be compared to “the single most important principle underlying the mechanisms of perception and conscious experience: that they may have evolved exclusively for extracting statistical regularities from the natural world” (Ramachandran and Hirstein 1997, p. 453). It should be noted that humans are capable of learning such regularities from just two or three repetitions (Turk-Browne et al. 2009).
The best expression of the world’s predictability in this respect is David Marr’s (1970, pp. 150–151) FUNDAMENTAL HYPOTHESIS: “Where instances of a particular collection of intrinsic properties (i.e., properties already diagnosed from sensory information) tend to be grouped such that if some are present, most are, then other useful properties are likely to exist which generalize over such instances. Further, properties often are grouped in this way.” This can be compared to “the single most important principle underlying the mechanisms of perception and conscious experience: that they may have evolved exclusively for extracting statistical regularities from the natural world” (Ramachandran and Hirstein 1997, p. 453). It should be noted that humans are capable of learning such regularities from just two or three repetitions (Turk-Browne et al. 2009).
4
The analysis of the perception of STRAIGHTNESS follows O’Regan and Noë (2001).
The analysis of the perception of STRAIGHTNESS follows O’Regan and Noë (2001).
5
The CURVATURE ADAPTATION experiments are from Gibson (1933).
The CURVATURE ADAPTATION experiments are from Gibson (1933).
6
For a review of the embodiment thesis in cognitive science, see Anderson (2003). The examples involving emotion are from Niedenthal et al. (2005). The realization that COGNITION IS EMBODIED AND SITUATED prompts researchers such as Dennis Proffitt (2006) to quote Protagoras: “Man is the measure of all things.”
For a review of the embodiment thesis in cognitive science, see Anderson (2003). The examples involving emotion are from Niedenthal et al. (2005). The realization that COGNITION IS EMBODIED AND SITUATED prompts researchers such as Dennis Proffitt (2006) to quote Protagoras: “Man is the measure of all things.”
7
Edelman (1999) documents VERIDICAL PERCEPTION of shape and offers a computational analysis of the conditions under which it obtains.
Edelman (1999) documents VERIDICAL PERCEPTION of shape and offers a computational analysis of the conditions under which it obtains.
8
The line is from John Donne’s “Epithalamion Made at Lincoln Inn” (1595). Ellen Berscheid (2010, p. 15), in her taxonomic review of the psychology of LOVE, cites Aron and Aron (1986), who “believe that certain rapid changes in a new relationship, namely, the rapid ‘expansion of the self’ or incorporation into the self-concept of the qualities of the other, produce the euphoria often associated with falling in love.” The role of the Self in love is illuminated by this story from the writings of the Sufi poet and mystic Mowlana Jalal ad-Din Rumi (1207–1273):
The line is from John Donne’s “Epithalamion Made at Lincoln Inn” (1595). Ellen Berscheid (2010, p. 15), in her taxonomic review of the psychology of LOVE, cites Aron and Aron (1986), who “believe that certain rapid changes in a new relationship, namely, the rapid ‘expansion of the self’ or incorporation into the self-concept of the qualities of the other, produce the euphoria often associated with falling in love.” The role of the Self in love is illuminated by this story from the writings of the Sufi poet and mystic Mowlana Jalal ad-Din Rumi (1207–1273):
One went to the door of the Beloved and knocked. A voice asked: “Who is there?” He answered: “It is I.” The voice said: “There is no room here for me and thee.” The door was shut. After a year of solitude and deprivation, this man returned to the door of the Beloved. He knocked. A voice from within asked: “Who is there?” The man said: “It is Thou.” The door was opened for him.
A version of Rumi’s story appears, in verse, in
The Mesnavi and the Acts of the Adepts
(Rumi and Ahmed 1881), p. 221.
The Mesnavi and the Acts of the Adepts
(Rumi and Ahmed 1881), p. 221.
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