Authors: Susan Wise Bauer
The History of the Medieval World: From the Conversion of Constantine to the First Crusade (108 page)
BOOK: The History of the Medieval World: From the Conversion of Constantine to the First Crusade
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Mu’tazilism had five foundational principles: Seyyed Hossein Nasr defines them as unity (God’s nature as a single transcendent being), justice (God’s judgment governed by rational principle), the “promise and the threat” (those who obey will be given rewards, while those who fail to repent will suffer eternal torment), the “in-between position” in relation to Muslims who commit sins (they are in the moment of sinning neither believers nor infidels, but something “in between”), and the leader’s responsibility to exhort the community to do good and forbid them to do evil. See
Islamic Philosophy from Its Origin to the Present
(State University of New York Press, 2006), pp. 120–125; for additional clarification, see Fauzan Saleh,
Modern Trends in Islamic Theological Discourse in Modern Indonesia
(Brill, 2001).
Mu’tazilism had five foundational principles: Seyyed Hossein Nasr defines them as unity (God’s nature as a single transcendent being), justice (God’s judgment governed by rational principle), the “promise and the threat” (those who obey will be given rewards, while those who fail to repent will suffer eternal torment), the “in-between position” in relation to Muslims who commit sins (they are in the moment of sinning neither believers nor infidels, but something “in between”), and the leader’s responsibility to exhort the community to do good and forbid them to do evil. See
Islamic Philosophy from Its Origin to the Present
(State University of New York Press, 2006), pp. 120–125; for additional clarification, see Fauzan Saleh,
Modern Trends in Islamic Theological Discourse in Modern Indonesia
(Brill, 2001).
*
In Shi’a doctrine, Ali was followed by his son Hasan ibn Ali, who lived from 625 to 670; his second son Husayn ibn Ali (626–680); Husayn’s son Ali ibn Husayn (also known as Zayn al-Abidin, 654–713); Ali’s son Muhammad ibn Ali (also known as Muhammad al-Baqir, 676–743); and Muhammad’s son Ja’far ibn Muhammad (also known as Ja’far al-Sadiq, 702–765). After Ja’far, the Shi’a party split and two different lines of descent were traced from Ja’far. The Twelvers (the majority group) believed that the rightful
imams
were descended from Ja’far’s younger son, Musa, and recognized twelve
imams
in total, ending with Musa’s descendent Muhammad ibn Hassan, who disappeared when he was ten and who, they believe, will one day return. The Ismailis insisted on descent from Ja’far’s oldest son, Ismail. A third and smaller group of Shi’a, the Zayids, recognize Ali and his sons as true successors to the Prophet but hold that later
imams
can come from any descendent of those two sons. See Efraim Karsh,
Islamic Imperialism
(Yale University Press, 2006), p. 54; Paul E. Walker,
Fatimid History and Ismaili Doctrine
(Ashgate, 2008), 2.3.
In Shi’a doctrine, Ali was followed by his son Hasan ibn Ali, who lived from 625 to 670; his second son Husayn ibn Ali (626–680); Husayn’s son Ali ibn Husayn (also known as Zayn al-Abidin, 654–713); Ali’s son Muhammad ibn Ali (also known as Muhammad al-Baqir, 676–743); and Muhammad’s son Ja’far ibn Muhammad (also known as Ja’far al-Sadiq, 702–765). After Ja’far, the Shi’a party split and two different lines of descent were traced from Ja’far. The Twelvers (the majority group) believed that the rightful
imams
were descended from Ja’far’s younger son, Musa, and recognized twelve
imams
in total, ending with Musa’s descendent Muhammad ibn Hassan, who disappeared when he was ten and who, they believe, will one day return. The Ismailis insisted on descent from Ja’far’s oldest son, Ismail. A third and smaller group of Shi’a, the Zayids, recognize Ali and his sons as true successors to the Prophet but hold that later
imams
can come from any descendent of those two sons. See Efraim Karsh,
Islamic Imperialism
(Yale University Press, 2006), p. 54; Paul E. Walker,
Fatimid History and Ismaili Doctrine
(Ashgate, 2008), 2.3.
*
The seven English kingdoms that dominated in the ninth century were Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, Essex, Kent, Sussex, and Wessex.
The seven English kingdoms that dominated in the ninth century were Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, Essex, Kent, Sussex, and Wessex.
*
Aquitaine had been reunited with the western Frankish lands and now fell under Charles the Fat’s rule as well.
Aquitaine had been reunited with the western Frankish lands and now fell under Charles the Fat’s rule as well.
*
Arnulf of Carinthia became king of Eastern Francia and Lotharingia; Odo was elected king of Western Francia; Guy of Spoleto and Berengar fought over Italy; Louis, son of the Provence nobleman Boso, was acclaimed in Provence; in Upper Burgundy, a nobleman man named Rudolph was made king; Ranulf II made himself king of Aquitaine and also announced that Charles the Simple, youngest son of Louis the Stammerer and now nine years old, was the rightful king of Western Francia.
Arnulf of Carinthia became king of Eastern Francia and Lotharingia; Odo was elected king of Western Francia; Guy of Spoleto and Berengar fought over Italy; Louis, son of the Provence nobleman Boso, was acclaimed in Provence; in Upper Burgundy, a nobleman man named Rudolph was made king; Ranulf II made himself king of Aquitaine and also announced that Charles the Simple, youngest son of Louis the Stammerer and now nine years old, was the rightful king of Western Francia.
*
The Japanese military structure was somewhat more complex than this brief summary allows me to describe; for a more detailed explanation, see Karl F. Friday,
Hired Swords
(Stanford University Press, 1992), pp. 1–32.
The Japanese military structure was somewhat more complex than this brief summary allows me to describe; for a more detailed explanation, see Karl F. Friday,
Hired Swords
(Stanford University Press, 1992), pp. 1–32.
*
Boris abdicated in 889 and entered a monastery, leaving the throne to his older son Vladimir. Vladimir tried to reverse his father’s policy on Christianity and started to drive out priests; Boris came out of the monastery, removed and jailed Vladimir, and crowned his younger son Simeon as his heir instead.
Boris abdicated in 889 and entered a monastery, leaving the throne to his older son Vladimir. Vladimir tried to reverse his father’s policy on Christianity and started to drive out priests; Boris came out of the monastery, removed and jailed Vladimir, and crowned his younger son Simeon as his heir instead.
*
Berengar would eventually serve as Roman emperor from 915 to 924; because of Louis’s blinding, the title remained vacant from 906 to 915.
Berengar would eventually serve as Roman emperor from 915 to 924; because of Louis’s blinding, the title remained vacant from 906 to 915.
*
These duchies, which functioned as small individual realms within the larger kingdom of Eastern Francia, are generally known as stem duchies. The phrase implies that the duchy’s coherence came from its distant past as a single tribal unit. The tribal identity, although long past, is the root from which the duchy’s identity stems. Elsewhere in Europe, “duchy” tends to refer to a geographical area laid out for the sake of administration.
These duchies, which functioned as small individual realms within the larger kingdom of Eastern Francia, are generally known as stem duchies. The phrase implies that the duchy’s coherence came from its distant past as a single tribal unit. The tribal identity, although long past, is the root from which the duchy’s identity stems. Elsewhere in Europe, “duchy” tends to refer to a geographical area laid out for the sake of administration.
*
The Buyids are often called Buwayhids; both names are accurate.
The Buyids are often called Buwayhids; both names are accurate.
*
Wang Kon is frequently referred to by his posthumous royal title, Taejo, and his kingdom is also known as Taebong.
Wang Kon is frequently referred to by his posthumous royal title, Taejo, and his kingdom is also known as Taebong.
*
“Atheling,” also spelled “aetheling,” was the Anglo-Saxon word used to designate a man eligible to inherit the throne.
“Atheling,” also spelled “aetheling,” was the Anglo-Saxon word used to designate a man eligible to inherit the throne.
*
The exact dates of Harald’s reign are unknown, but recent research suggests that he was born around 870 and carried out the bulk of his campaigning during the lifetimes of Alfred the Great and Athelstan of England. See, for example, Gwyn Jones,
A History of the Vikings
(Oxford University Press, 1984), pp. 88–90.
The exact dates of Harald’s reign are unknown, but recent research suggests that he was born around 870 and carried out the bulk of his campaigning during the lifetimes of Alfred the Great and Athelstan of England. See, for example, Gwyn Jones,
A History of the Vikings
(Oxford University Press, 1984), pp. 88–90.
*
This is a simplified recounting of the development of a very complicated situation. Under Charlemagne and Louis the Pious, decrees were passed that gave bishops the right to approve any appointments made by laymen; however, this right was exercised very inadequately during the reign of later kings. For useful overviews of this situation, which led to the Investiture Controversy of the late eleventh century, see Uta-Renate Blumenthal,
The Investiture Controversy
(University of Pennsylvania Press, 1988).
This is a simplified recounting of the development of a very complicated situation. Under Charlemagne and Louis the Pious, decrees were passed that gave bishops the right to approve any appointments made by laymen; however, this right was exercised very inadequately during the reign of later kings. For useful overviews of this situation, which led to the Investiture Controversy of the late eleventh century, see Uta-Renate Blumenthal,
The Investiture Controversy
(University of Pennsylvania Press, 1988).
*
Skleros had already led one revolt against the throne and had been driven out of the empire; the opposition against him had been led by none other than Bardas Phocas, in the days when Phocas had been loyal to the throne (before Phocas had laid claim to it for himself).
Skleros had already led one revolt against the throne and had been driven out of the empire; the opposition against him had been led by none other than Bardas Phocas, in the days when Phocas had been loyal to the throne (before Phocas had laid claim to it for himself).
*
Explorer Helge Ingstad and archaeologist Anne Ingstad found the remains of this camp in 1960 at L’Anse aux Meadows. See Helge Ingstad and Anne Stine Ingstad,
The Viking Discovery of America
(Checkmark Books, 2001).
Explorer Helge Ingstad and archaeologist Anne Ingstad found the remains of this camp in 1960 at L’Anse aux Meadows. See Helge Ingstad and Anne Stine Ingstad,
The Viking Discovery of America
(Checkmark Books, 2001).
*
The history of North America in the Middle Ages is largely unwritten “prehistory,” well beyond the scope of this book. For a survey of the major cultures and movements, see Stuart J. Fiedel,
Prehistory of the Americas
(Cambridge University Press, 1987); a useful and slightly more technical guide to the archaeological evidence can be found in Guy E. Gibbon and Kenneth M. Ames,
Archaeology of Prehistoric Native America: An Encyclopedia
(Garland, 1998).
The history of North America in the Middle Ages is largely unwritten “prehistory,” well beyond the scope of this book. For a survey of the major cultures and movements, see Stuart J. Fiedel,
Prehistory of the Americas
(Cambridge University Press, 1987); a useful and slightly more technical guide to the archaeological evidence can be found in Guy E. Gibbon and Kenneth M. Ames,
Archaeology of Prehistoric Native America: An Encyclopedia
(Garland, 1998).
†
The Mesoamerican cultures that flourished between c. 900 and the Spanish conquest are known to archaeologists as “Post-Classic.”
The Mesoamerican cultures that flourished between c. 900 and the Spanish conquest are known to archaeologists as “Post-Classic.”
*
A comprehensive and fascinating comparison of the myths can be found in H. B. Nicholson,
Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl
(University Press of Colorado, 2001).
A comprehensive and fascinating comparison of the myths can be found in H. B. Nicholson,
Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl
(University Press of Colorado, 2001).
*
Sylvester II died in 1003, the year after his king, and three short-lived popes (John XVII, John XVIII, and Sergius IV) followed him before Benedict’s election in 1012.
Sylvester II died in 1003, the year after his king, and three short-lived popes (John XVII, John XVIII, and Sergius IV) followed him before Benedict’s election in 1012.
*
Drogo inherited control of Apulia from his brother William Ironarm, who had first conquered the territory and put it under Norman rule.
Drogo inherited control of Apulia from his brother William Ironarm, who had first conquered the territory and put it under Norman rule.
*
Two short papacies came between Clement and Leo IX. Benedict IX had briefly grabbed the papal throne for the third time just after Clement’s death (1047–1048); in July of 1048 he was driven out by Henry III’s next appointee, Damasus II, but Damasus died of malaria after two months and Henry nominated Leo IX in his place.
Two short papacies came between Clement and Leo IX. Benedict IX had briefly grabbed the papal throne for the third time just after Clement’s death (1047–1048); in July of 1048 he was driven out by Henry III’s next appointee, Damasus II, but Damasus died of malaria after two months and Henry nominated Leo IX in his place.
*
At the head of the list were two issues: the western church used unleavened bread for the celebration of communion, while the east did not; and the western church spoke of the Holy Spirit as proceeding from both the Father and the Son, while the east refused to use this formulation (known as the “Filioque clause”). Neither issue was theologically insignificant. The eastern patriarch believed that the use of unleavened bread was too close to Jewish practice, meaning that the western church had not fully accepted the transition from Old Testament law to New Testament grace; the eastern priests were also widely convinced that to speak of the procession of the Holy Spirit “from the Father and the Son” suggested that God the Father and Jesus Christ were separate beings in a way that violated the unity of the Trinity. However, the real quarrel between east and west was one of authority: whether pope or patriarch ultimately had the last word on which Christian beliefs were and were not orthodox. For more on the specific theological problems involved, see Jaroslav Pelikan,
The Growth of Medieval Theology
(600–1300) (University of Chicago Press, 1978), particularly chapter 5, “The One True Faith.”
At the head of the list were two issues: the western church used unleavened bread for the celebration of communion, while the east did not; and the western church spoke of the Holy Spirit as proceeding from both the Father and the Son, while the east refused to use this formulation (known as the “Filioque clause”). Neither issue was theologically insignificant. The eastern patriarch believed that the use of unleavened bread was too close to Jewish practice, meaning that the western church had not fully accepted the transition from Old Testament law to New Testament grace; the eastern priests were also widely convinced that to speak of the procession of the Holy Spirit “from the Father and the Son” suggested that God the Father and Jesus Christ were separate beings in a way that violated the unity of the Trinity. However, the real quarrel between east and west was one of authority: whether pope or patriarch ultimately had the last word on which Christian beliefs were and were not orthodox. For more on the specific theological problems involved, see Jaroslav Pelikan,
The Growth of Medieval Theology
(600–1300) (University of Chicago Press, 1978), particularly chapter 5, “The One True Faith.”
*
Henry III chose Victor II (1055–1057) as pope just before his death; when Victor died of fever, he was succeeded by Stephen IX (1057–1058) and then by the Italian Benedict X (1058–1059), who was never properly consecrated and tried to oppose Nicholas II’s ordination before he was forced to leave Rome by Nicholas II’s supporters.
Henry III chose Victor II (1055–1057) as pope just before his death; when Victor died of fever, he was succeeded by Stephen IX (1057–1058) and then by the Italian Benedict X (1058–1059), who was never properly consecrated and tried to oppose Nicholas II’s ordination before he was forced to leave Rome by Nicholas II’s supporters.
*
He also called himself “King of Sweden”; the Swedes already had a king, but since Canute by this time had managed to battle his way into some Swedish land, he gave himself the right to call himself king of England, Denmark, Norway and Sweden. The Swedish king ignored this.
He also called himself “King of Sweden”; the Swedes already had a king, but since Canute by this time had managed to battle his way into some Swedish land, he gave himself the right to call himself king of England, Denmark, Norway and Sweden. The Swedish king ignored this.
†
The
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
puts the year of surrender at 1031, but other sources suggest 1027 as a more likely date.
The
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
puts the year of surrender at 1031, but other sources suggest 1027 as a more likely date.
*
Mac Bethad of Moray has sometimes been identified as the “Maelbeth” who accompanied Malcolm II at his surrender to Canute; however, the two names are distinctly different, and it is unlikely that Mac Bethad was in power in Moray as early as 1031. See Charles Plummer and John Earle,
Two of the Saxon Chronicles Parallel,
vol. 2 (Clarendon Press, 1899), pp. 207ff.
Mac Bethad of Moray has sometimes been identified as the “Maelbeth” who accompanied Malcolm II at his surrender to Canute; however, the two names are distinctly different, and it is unlikely that Mac Bethad was in power in Moray as early as 1031. See Charles Plummer and John Earle,
Two of the Saxon Chronicles Parallel,
vol. 2 (Clarendon Press, 1899), pp. 207ff.
*
When Harold became earl of Wessex, Edward restored Leofric’s son to the position of earl of East Anglia. Siward of Northumbria died in 1055, and Harold Godwinson’s brother Tostig was awarded his earldom. Leofric of Mercia died in 1057; at that point his son was transferred from East Anglia over to Mercia, and East Anglia was awarded to a third Godwin brother, Gyrth. This put East Anglia, Northumbria, and Wessex all under the control of Godwins, and left only Mercia in non-Godwin hands.
When Harold became earl of Wessex, Edward restored Leofric’s son to the position of earl of East Anglia. Siward of Northumbria died in 1055, and Harold Godwinson’s brother Tostig was awarded his earldom. Leofric of Mercia died in 1057; at that point his son was transferred from East Anglia over to Mercia, and East Anglia was awarded to a third Godwin brother, Gyrth. This put East Anglia, Northumbria, and Wessex all under the control of Godwins, and left only Mercia in non-Godwin hands.
*
The Song dynasty is sometimes known as the Northern Song, to differentiate it from the Southern Song. This can be misleading, since the “Northern Song” controlled both the northern and southern territories, so I have chosen to use simply “Song” for the dynasty that existed before 1127.
The Song dynasty is sometimes known as the Northern Song, to differentiate it from the Southern Song. This can be misleading, since the “Northern Song” controlled both the northern and southern territories, so I have chosen to use simply “Song” for the dynasty that existed before 1127.
*
Wibert took the papal name “Clement III,” but is generally referred to as Antipope Clement III, since the later pope Paulino Scolari also took the name “Clement III” (1187–1191).
Wibert took the papal name “Clement III,” but is generally referred to as Antipope Clement III, since the later pope Paulino Scolari also took the name “Clement III” (1187–1191).
*
Although the crusaders and their chroniclers often speak of “the Temple,” the Jewish temple destroyed in
AD
70 had not been rebuilt. “Temple” sometimes refers to the mosque near the Dome of the Rock, and sometimes to the Dome itself.
Although the crusaders and their chroniclers often speak of “the Temple,” the Jewish temple destroyed in
AD
70 had not been rebuilt. “Temple” sometimes refers to the mosque near the Dome of the Rock, and sometimes to the Dome itself.
BOOK: The History of the Medieval World: From the Conversion of Constantine to the First Crusade
4.61Mb size Format: txt, pdf, ePub
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