The Invisible History of the Human Race (44 page)

“suggests the strong likelihood”
:
D. P. Jordan, Statement on the TJMF Research Committee Report on Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings, available at http://www.monticello.org/site/plantation-and-slavery/report-research
-committee-thomas-jefferson-and-sally-hemings.

“veins was Thomas Jefferson’s”
:
M. Hendricks, “A Daughter’s Dedication,”
Johns Hopkins Magazine,
September 1999, available at http://pages.jh
.edu/~jhumag/0999web/roots.html.

stories and the DNA evidence
:
S. R. Williams, “Genetic Genealogy: The Woodson Family’s Experience,”
Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry
29, no. 2 (2005): 225–52; and personal communciation.

“They matched so well”
:
Unless otherwise cited, quotes from Sloan Williams in this chapter are from my interviews with her.

“They were extremely suspicious”
:
S. R. Williams, “Genetic Genealogy: The Woodson Family’s Experience,”
Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry
29,
no. 2 (2005) 226.

black—were as well
:
CeCe Moore of YourGeneticGenealogist.com currently runs an autosomal DNA project to gather DNA from descendants of Madison Hemings (as well as descendants of Eston and the other Hemings children) in order to try to match it against descendants of the known Jefferson lineage. She also accepts DNA from other nonlineal relatives of the Jefferson and Hemings families.

“results are unexpected or undesired”
:
D. A. Bolnick, et al., “The Science and Business of Genetic Ancestry Testing,”
Science
318, no. 5849 (2007): 399.

“general and the scientific communities”
:
C. D. Royal, et al., “Inferring Genetic Ancestry: Opportunities, Challenges, and Implications,”
American Journal of Human Genetics
86, no. 5 (2010): 661–73.

“more problems than it solves”
:
C. Elliott and P. Brodwin, “Identity and Genetic Ancestry Tracing,”
British Medical Journal
325, no. 7378 (2002): 1469.

few scientists would disagree
:
J. Marks, “Contemporary Bio-Anthropology,”
Anthropology Today
18, no. 4 (2002)): 3, 5, 7; and J. Marks, “‘We’re Going to Tell These People Who They Really Are’: Science and Relatedness,” in
Relative Values: Reconfiguring Kinship Studies
, ed. S. Franklin and S. McKinnon (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2001), pp. 355–83.

“Africa and Africans as primordial”
:
K. TallBear, “Narratives of Race and Indigeneity in the Genographic Project,”
The Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics
35, no. 3, 412–424
.

“political agenda of science haters”
:
C. Tuniz, R. Gillespie, and C. Jones,
The Bone Readers
(Crows Nest: Allen & Unwin, 2009), 195

differently shaped skulls
:
L. Betti, et al., “The Relative Role of Drift and Selection in Shaping the Human Skull,”
American Journal of Physical Anthropology
141, no. 1 (2010): 76–82.

no such thing as biological race
:
Lewontin is not the only researcher who made this case, yet while others made it before him, he is most often popularly associated with this argument today.

“Human races and populations are remarkably similar”
:
R. C. Lewontin, “The Apportionment of Human Diversity,”
Evolutionary Biology
6 (1972): 381–98. For a recent essay about Lewontin’s views on race and ancestry see R. Lewontin, “Confusions About Human Races,” Is Race “Real”? June 7, 2006, available at http://raceandgenomics.ssrc.org/Lewontin/

“two random individuals”
:
D. Witherspoon, “Genetic Similarities Within and Between Human Populations,”
Genetics
, May 2007; 176 (1): 351.

the picture changes
:
This was first pointed out in A. W. Edwards, “Human Genetic Diversity: Lewontin’s Fallacy,”
BioEssays
25, no. 8 (2003): 798–801. Also see N. Risch, et al., “Categorization of Humans in Biomedical Research: Genes, Race and Disease,”
Genome Biology
3, no. 7 (2002): 1–12.

than from a distant one
:
D. Witherspoon, “Genetic Similarities Within and Between Human Populations,”
Genetics
, May 2007; 176 (1): 351.

genetics as a solution to disease
:
L. Braun, “Reifying Human Difference: The Debate on Genetics, Race, and Health,”
International Journal of Health Services
36, no. 3 (2006): 557–73.

medical utility of “race”
:
A. M. Leroi, “A Family Tree in Every Gene,”
Journal of Genetics
84, no. 1 (2005): 3–6.

“clear benefits for public health”
:
J. Stevens, “Eve Is from Adam’s Rib, the Earth Is Flat, and Races Come from Genes,”
in
Is Race “Real”?
June 7, 2006, available at http://raceandgenomics.ssrc.org/Stevens/.

“data-rich scientists”
:
Quotes from Eran Elhaik in this chapter are from my interviews with him.

“You cannot do it for every population”
:
A different study found that Indian castes seemed to differ in the relative proportion of northern and southern Indian DNA in their genome. D. Reich, et al., “Reconstructing Indian Population History,”
Nature
461, no. 7263 (2009): 489–94.

Ancestry does not work that way
:
Other analyses have shown that the racial/ethnic self-identification of people who were sorted into clusters based on genomic markers agreed with the clustering. See, for example, N. Risch, et al., “Categorization of Humans in Biomedical Research: Genes, Race and Disease,”
Genome Biology
3, no. 7 (2002): 1–12.

a survey conducted by Wendy Roth
:
W. D. Roth and B. Ivemark,
“‘
Not Everybody Knows That I’m Actually Black’: The Effects of DNA Ancestry Testing on Racial and Ethnic Boundaries,” presented at the American Sociological Association Annual Meeting Atlanta, August 14–17, 2010.

“general level of ignorance”
:
Unless otherwise cited, quotes from Wendy Roth in this chapter are from my interviews with her.

to include the new information
:
Their identification depended on a number of factors, including their level of education, how distant they felt from the group in question, whether they looked physically as if they belonged to one group and not another, and how their family identified itself.

“integrating the contributing factors”
:
Quotes from Jennifer Wagner in this chapter are from my interviews with her.

“the study of peas or fruit flies”
:
N. G. Jablonski, M. Shriver, and H. Gates, “Using Genetics and Genealogy to Teach Evolution and Human Diversity,” National Evolutionary Synthesis Center, Catalysis Meeting, available at https://www.nescent.org/science/awards_summary.php?id=321.

Chapter 12: The History of the World

intentional engraving were discovered
:
P.-J. Texier, et al., “A Howiesons Poort Tradition of Engraving Ostrich Eggshell Containers Dated to 60,000 Years Ago at Diepkloof Rock Shelter, South Africa,”
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
107, no. 14 (2010): 6180–85.

more than 100,000 years ago
:
T. F. Strasser, et al., “Dating Palaeolithic Sites in Southwestern Crete, Greece,”
Journal of Quaternary Science
26, no. 5 (2011): 553–60.

ocher processing
:
C. S. Henshilwood, et al., “A 100,000-Year-Old Ochre-Processing Workshop at Blombos Cave, South Africa,”
Science
334, no. 6053 (2011): 219–22.

their stone tools using heat
:
V. Mourre, P. Villa, and C. S. Henshilwood, “Early Use of Pressure Flaking on Lithic Artifacts at Blombos Cave, South Africa,”
Science
330, no. 6004 (2010): 659–62.

perhaps not much more than one thousand
:
The number of individuals in an ancestral population is usually considerably greater than the number of individuals who reproduce, known as the effective population size. The estimate of 1,000-2,500 individuals is the effective population size. See B. Henn, et al. “The Great Human Expansion,”
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
109, 44 (2012): 17758–17764.

“that happened a long time ago”
:
Quotes from Marcus Feldman in this chapter are from my interview with him.

skating on ice
:
F. Formenti and A. E. Minetti, “
The First Humans Travelling on Ice: An Energy-Saving Strategy?”
Biological Journal of the Linnean Society
93, no. 1 (2008): 1–7.

Pacific coastline and then eastward
:
J. A. Raff and D. A. Bolnick, “
Genetic Roots of the First Americans,”
Nature
506, no. 7487 (2014): 162–63.

Eurasia that was ancestral to both
:
N. Patterson, et al., “Ancient Admixture in Human History,”
Genetics
192, no. 3 (2012): 1065–93.

population in western Eurasia
:
M. Raghavan, et al., “Upper Palaeolithic Siberian Genome Reveals Dual Ancestry of Native Americans,”
Nature
505, no. 7481 (2014): 87–91.

others from North America
:
M. Rasmussen, et al., “The Genome of a Late Pleistocene Human from a Clovis Burial Site in Western Montana,”
Nature
506, no. 7487 (2014): 225–29.

wild canine in with them
:
I. Pugach, et al., “Genome-wide Data Substantiate Holocene Gene Flow from India to Australia,”
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
110, no. 5 (2013): 1803–8.

blended with other groups
:
C. M. Schlebusch, et al., “Genomic Variation in Seven Khoe-San Groups Reveals Adaptation and Complex African History,”
Science
338, no. 6105 (2012): 374–79.

modern human exodus from Africa
:
H. Reyes-Centeno, et al., “Genomic and Cranial Phenotype Data Support Multiple Modern Human Dispersals from Africa and a Southern Route into Asia,”
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
111, no. 20, (2014): 7248–53.

years ago support this idea
:
J. Rose, et al., “The Nubian Complex of Dhofar, Oman: An African Middle Stone Age Industry in Southern Arabia,”
PLoS ONE
6, no. 11 (2011): e28239.

“Neanderthals and
Homo sapiens
are like lions and tigers”
:
Quote from Colin Groves in this chapter is from my interview with him. Razib Khan suggested to me that the difference was more like polar bears versus brown bears.

including David Reich at Harvard
:
R. E. Green, et al., “A Draft Sequence of the Neandertal Genome,”
Science
328, no. 5979 (2010): 710–22.

the beginning of metallurgy
:
G. Brandt, et al., “Ancient DNA Reveals Key Stages in the Formation of Central European Mitochondrial Genetic Diversity,”
Science
342, no. 6155 (2013): 257–61.

farmers replaced the hunter-gatherers
:
P. Skoglund, et al., “Genomic Diversity and Admixture Differs for Stone-Age Scandinavian Foragers and Farmers,”
Science
344 no. 6185 (2014): 747–750.

such as addiction to cigarettes
:
S. Sankararaman, et al., “The Genomic Landscape of Neanderthal Ancestry in Present-Day Humans,”
Nature
507, no. 7492 (2014): 354–57.

lipid catabolism
:
E. Khrameeva, “Neanderthal Ancestry Drives Evolution of Lipid Catabolism in Contemporary Europeans,”
Nature Communications
5, available at DOI: 10.1038/ncomms4584.

the genomes of modern people
:
J. Krause, et al., “The Complete Mitochondrial DNA Genome of an Unknown Hominin from Southern Siberia,”
Nature
464, no. 7290 (2010): 894–97.

different, as yet unknown, species
:
M. F. Hammer, et al., “Genetic Evidence for Archaic Admixture in Africa,”
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
108, no. 37 (2011): 15123–28.

several times over in different
groups
:
S. A. Tishkoff, et al., “Convergent Adaptation of Human Lactase Persistence in Africa and Europe,”
Nature Genetics
39, no. 1 (2007): 31–40.

the better we could process starch
:
G. Perry, “Diet and the Evolution of Human Amylase Gene Copy Number Variation,”
Nature Genetics
39 (2007): 1256–1260.

a series of apocalyptic Mexican pandemics
:
R. Acuna-Soto, et al., “Megadrought and Megadeath in 16th Century Mexico,”
Revista Biomédica
13 (2002): 289–292.

New Guinea/Australia bacteria
:
Y. Moodley, et al., “The Peopling of the Pacific from a Bacterial Perspective,”
Science
323, no. 5913 (2009): 527–30.