The New Old World (83 page)

26
. The activities of the CUP exiles, and their relations with Kemal, have yet to be carefully studied. The best treatment to date focusses on Enver's quests for Soviet assistance, and attempts to raise the banner of Islam in Central Asia, with some documentation of the role of others in Europe: Yamauchi Masayuki,
The Green Crescent under the Red Star: Enver Pasha in Soviet Russia 1919–1922,
Tokyo 1991. For the diplomatic hospitality they enjoyed in Berlin, see the memoirs of Wipert von Blücher,
Deutschlands Weg nach Rapallo
, Wiesbaden 1951, pp. 130–7. Talat's sojourn is recounted admiringly in Ingeborg Böer, Ruth Herkötter and Petra Kappert (eds),
Türken in Berlin 1871–1945
, Berlin 2002, pp. 195–201.

27
. For a sensational account, see Jacques Derogy,
Opération Némésis: Les vengeurs arméniens
, Paris 1986, pp. 135–48, 239–61, 275–8, 296–301. Bedri, by training a lawyer, was dispatched on a mission to Kabul, where after helping to draft constitutional and criminal codes for Amanullah's regime, he died of consumption in 1924: Sebastian Beck, ‘Das Afghanische Strafgesetzbuch vom Jahre 1924 mit dem Zusatz vom Jahre 1925',
Die Welt des Islams
, August 1928, p. 72.

28
. Carter Findley rightly underlines this rarity, in his imaginative study
The Turks in World History
, Oxford 2005, p. 204.

29
. For the three strata of Ottoman usage, see
Ş
erif Mardin,
Religion, Society and Modernity in Turkey
, Syracuse 2006, pp. 320–4.

30
. Poulton,
Top Hat, Grey Wolf and Crescent
, p. 91.

31
. Mango,
Atatürk
, p. 374.

32
. See David McDowall,
A Modern History of the Kurds
, London 2004, p. 188.

33
.
A Modern History of the Kurds
, p. 187.

34
. Finkel,
Osman's Dream
, p. 550.

35
. For particulars, see Poulton,
Top Hat, Grey Wolf and Crescent
, pp. 104–14.

36
. Letters of 12 December 1936 and 3 January 1937, published in
Zeitschrift für Germanistik
, December 1988, pp. 691–2.

37
. ‘A History and Geography of Turkish Nationalism', in Faruk Birtek and Thalia Dragonas (eds),
Citizenship and Nation-State in Greece and Turkey
, London 2005, p. 14.

38
. See Vahakn Dadrian,
The History of the Armenian Genocide
, New York 2003, pp. 358, 371. The signatory of this cable, Ahmet Muhtar Mullao
ğ
lu, became the Turkish Republic's first ambassador to Washington in 1927.

39
. For these individuals, and the general pattern, see Akçam,
A Shameful Act,
pp. 362–4. Zürcher, pointing out that the Kemalist elite as a whole had the same regional and occupational background as the CUP—‘both groups of leaders came from an almost identical pool sociologically', goes on: ‘Here we touch on a very sensitive issue in the historiography of modern Turkey', and lists further prominent figures of the inter-war regime: ‘one would like to know more about these people's activities during World War I'. See ‘How Europeans Adopted Anatolia and Created Turkey',
European Review
, Vol. 13, No. 3, July 2005, p. 386.

40
.
The Philosophy of History
, New York 1956, p. 315–6.

41
. Henry and Robin Adams,
Rebel Patriot: A Biography of Franz Von Papen
, Santa Barbara 1987, p. 375.

42
. H. E. Erkilet,
Ş
ark Cephesinde Gördüklerim
, Istanbul 1943, pp. 218–23. Invitations for the Turkish military to inspect British positions in Iraq and Iran were declined: Lothar Krecker,
Deutschland and die Türkei im zweiten Weltkrieg
, Frankfurt 1964, p. 198.

43
. For this episode, see Frank Weber,
The Evasive Neutral: Germany, Britain, and the Quest for a Turkish Alliance in the Second World War
, Columbia and London 1979, pp. 126–36, much the best study of Turkish diplomacy in these years. Fulsome appreciation of Ankara's course during the war can be found in Edward Weisband,
Turkish Foreign Policy 1943–1945
, Princeton 1973, and Selim Deringil,
Turkish Foreign Policy during the Second World War: An ‘Active' Neutrality
, Cambridge 2004, who remarks guilelessly at the outset: ‘A study of Turkish foreign policy should ideally be based on the archives. But unfortunately this is not possible as the main Turkish archival material is closed to private research' (p. 7), without asking himself why this might be.

44
.
Documents Secrets du Ministère des Affaires Etrangères d'Allemagne
, Paris 1946, p. 89, translated from the Soviet publication of German archives captured in Berlin in 1945.

45
. Poulton,
Top Hat, Grey Wolf and Crescent
, p. 120.

46
. For coverage, see
Cumhuriyet
, 25 February 1943. The British ambassador Knatchbull-Hugessen informed the Foreign Office: ‘I learn that the original proposal regarding Talat's remains came from M. Saraço
ğ
lu, a faithful henchman of the President'. See Robert Olson, ‘The Remains of Talat: A Dialectic Between Republic and Empire',
Die Welt
des
Islams
, No. 26, 1986, p. 54. The German diplomat and fixer Ernst Jäckh, claiming that Kemal once told him ‘he stood on the shoulders of our common Young Turk friend and statesman', described the scene in Istanbul: ‘In the funeral procession from the “Hill of Liberty” to Talaat's reburial on Turkish soil, personal representatives of the Cabinet and a great popular crowd joined the troops, paying full military honours. It had been my privilege to make the funeral oration, at the time of his death in 1921. Now the address was delivered by our mutual friend, the doyen of political publicists, Hussein Djahid Yalcin, who, weeping over the grave, personified the historic evolution from the Young Turkish period to Ataturk's era'. See
Der goldene Pflug: Lebensernte eines Weltbürgers
, Stuttgart 1954, p. 125, 231–3, and
The Rising Crescent
, New York 1944, p. 95.

47
. ‘The Tragedy of the Turkish Left',
New Left Review
I/26, March–April 1981, p. 85; published under the pseudonynm ‘Ahmet Samim'.

48
. For the classic analysis of this configuration, see Ça
ğ
lar Keyder's fundamental work,
State and Class in Turkey
, London 1987, pp. 122–5.

49
. Speros Vryonis Jr,
The Mechanism of Catastrophe: The Turkish Pogrom of September 6–7, 1955 and the Destruction of the Greek Community in Istanbul
, New York 2005, provides the fullest account of these events: for the role of Menderes and Bayar, see pp. 91–8.

50
. For a vivid description, see William Weiker,
The Turkish Revolution 1960–1961
, Westport 1980, pp. 14–20.

51
. At its height, in the Mafeking atmosphere after the invasion of Cyprus, the Republican's People's Party got just over 41 per cent of the vote, the combined forces of Demirel, Türkes and Erbakan just under 52 per cent.

52
. For a trenchant account, see Feroz Ahmed,
Turkey: The Quest for Identity
, Oxford 2003, pp. 134–7.

53
.
Religion, Society and Modernity in Turkey
, pp. 217–9.

54
. Compare Ece Temelkuran, ‘Headscarf and Flag',
New Left Review
II/51, May–June 2008, p. 83, with Mehmet Ali Birand,
The Generals' Coup in Turkey: An Inside Story of 12 September 1980
, London 1987, p. 212.

55
. For overviews, see Ça
ğ
lar Keyder, ‘The Turkish Bell Jar',
New Left Review
II/28 July–August 2004, pp. 67ff; Zürcher,
Turkey: A Modern History
, pp. 306–12.

56
. See the fine essay by Osman Ta
Ş
tan, ‘Religion and Religious Minorities', in Debbie Lovatt (ed.),
Turkey Since 1970: Politics, Economics and Society
, New York 2001, p. 151.

57
. Huri Türsan,
Democratisation in Turkey: The Role of Political Parties
, Brussels 2004, p. 228; David Shankland,
Islam and Society in Turkey
, Huntingdon 1999, p. 30.

58
. 45 per cent of peasants in Diyarbakir, 47 per cent in Urfa, were without land: Ahmed,
Turkey: The Quest for Identity
, p. 163.

59
. William Hale,
Turkey, the US and Iraq
, London 2007, p. 70.

60
. For the scale of the economic crisis, and its social impact, see Zülküf Aydın,
The Political Economy of Turkey
, London 2005, pp. 123–5.

61
. For these successes, see Nihal Incio
ğ
lu, ‘Local Elections and Electoral Behavior', in Sabri Sayari and Yilmaz Esmer,
Politics, Parties and Elections in Turkey
, Boulder 2002, pp. 83–9.

62
. See Erdo
ğ
an's address to the American Enterprise Institute, ‘Conservative Democracy and the Globalization of Freedom', in M. Hakan Yavuz,
The Emergence of a New Turkey: Democracy and the AK Party
, Salt Lake City 2006, pp. 333–40.

63
. ‘Investing in Turkey',
Financial Times
Special Report, 18 July 2007, p. 1.

64
. Cihan Tu
ğ
al, ‘NATO's Islamists: Hegemony and Americanization in Turkey',
New Left Review
II/44, March–April 2007, p. 22. This essay is the outstanding analysis to date of the AKP's rise and role in power.

65
. According to the recent revision of Turkish national accounts: see Economist Intelligence Unit,
Report on Turkey
, April 2008, p. 15.

66
. For a sharp light on this episode, see Saban Kardas, ‘Turkey and the Iraqi Crisis', in Yavuz (ed.),
The Emergence of a New Turkey
, pp. 314–26.

67
. For Öcalan's performances from prison, sometimes thought to be inspired by his captors, see Michael Gunter,
The Kurds Ascending
, New York 2008, pp. 63–86.

68
. There is now a considerable literature on Gülen, on whose ideas see Berrin Koyuncu Lorasda
ğ
ı, ‘Globalization, Modernization, and Democratization in Turkey: The Fethullah Gülen Movement', in E. Fuat Keyman,
Remaking Turkey
, Lanham 2007, pp. 153–75.

69
. Shankland,
Islam and Society in Turkey
, p. 170.

70
. For this celebrated remark, of which there are many versions, see Ersin Kalaycıo
ğ
lu,
Turkish Dynamics: Bridge Across Troubled Lands
, Basingstoke 2005, p. 165.

71
. Were repressions to be lifted, of course, Kurdish identity could well be reactivated among even the assimilated: see the level-headed discussion in Henri Barkey and Graham Fuller,
Turkey's Kurdish Question
, Lanham 1998, p. 83. Demographically the mainly Kurdish provinces in the south-east have a much higher reproduction rate than the rest of the country: McDowall,
A Modern History of the Kurds
, p. 450.

72
. For the current wave of laudatory writing on Talat, see Hülya Adak, ‘Identifying the “Internal Tumors” of World War I;
Talat Pasa'nin Hatıraları
[Talat Pasa's Memoirs], or the Travels of a Unionist Apologia into “History”', in Andreas Bähr, Peter Burschel, Gabriele Jancke (eds),
Raüme des Selbst: Selbstzeugnisforschung transkulturell
, Cologne 2007, pp. 167–8.
Ş
akir's leading eulogist is Hikmet Cicek:
Dr Bahaettin
Ş
akir. Ittihat Terakki'den Teskilati Mahsusa'ya bir Turk Jakobeni
, Istanbul 2004.

73
.
Insan Haklari ve Ermeni Sorunu: Ittihat ve Terakki'den Kurtulus Savasina
, published by IMGE Kitabevi in Ankara. Vahakn Dadrian, the leading Armenian-American scholar, had published the first edition of his
History of the Armenian Genocide
—it is now in its seventh—in 1995. The two are now collaborating on a joint work on the Istanbul trials.

74
. Finkel,
Osman's Dream
, pp. 534–6.

75
.
A Brief History of the Late Ottoman Empire
, p. 182.

76
. Mango,
Atatürk
, p. 161.

77
. Zürcher,
Turkey: A Modern History
(1993), p. 211;
Turkey, A Modern History
(2004), p. 116.

78
. Compare Zürcher's 1993 edition at p. 321, and the 2004 edition at pp. 334–5.

79
. ‘Turkey Pays for Sway in Wahington',
International Herald Tribune
, 18 October 2007. Gephardt gets $1.2 million a year for his services.

80
. ‘Genocide Resolution Still Far from Certain',
Los Angeles Times
, 21 April 2007.

81
. Efraim Inbar, ‘The Strategic Glue in the Israeli-Turkish Alignment', in Barry Rubin and Kemal Kirisi,
Turkey in World Politics, An Emerging Multiregional Power
, Boulder 2001, p. 123.

82
. Commission of the European Communities,
Turkey 2007 Progress Report
, Brussels 2007, pp. 14, 28.

83
.
Turkey 2007 Progress Report
, pp. 74, 75.

84
. ‘In deciding that Turkey has fulfilled the Copenhagen criteria, the EU has manifestly failed to fulfill its responsibilities to the Kurds': Kerim Yildiz and Mark Muller,
The European Union and Turkish Accession: Human Rights and the Kurds
, London 2008, pp. 180–3.

85
. Ollie Rehn,
Europe's Next Frontiers
, Baden-Baden 2006, pp. 116–77.