The Red Flag: A History of Communism (113 page)

88
. Djilas,
Tito
, p.7.

89
. Ibid., p.46.

90
. Ibid., p.20.

91
. Djilas,
Conversations
, pp.50–1.

92
. Ibid., p.76.

93
. Dedijer
Tito Speaks
, p.343.

94
. Djilas,
Tito
, p.31.

95
. This, of course, is not the place to try to resolve this complex issue, and the literature on the debate is enormous. For a traditionalist view that emphasizes the role of ideology, see H. Feis,
From Trust to Terror: the Onset of the Cold War, 1945
–
1950
(New York, 1970). For one that stresses Russian national interests, see H. Morgenthau,
In Defense of National Interest. A Critical Examination of American Foreign Policy
(New York, 1951). For one of the classic early revisionist works, see G. Kolko,
The Politics of War. Allied Diplomacy and the World Crisis of 1943
–
1945
(London, 1969). For an account of the state of the debate, see O. Westad (ed.),
Reviewing the Cold War
(London, 2000).

96
. This is argued convincingly by Van Ree,
Political Thought
, chs.15–16.

97
. V. Pechatnov, ‘The Soviet Union and the Outside World’, p.2, forthcoming in
Cambridge History of the Cold War,
vol. i.

98
. Cited in ibid., p.3.

99
. This is the argument of Leffler, see M. Leffler,
A Preponderance of Power: National Security, the Truman Administration, and the Cold War
(Stanford, 1992).

100
. Cited in M. Leffler,
For the Soul of All Mankind. The United States, the Soviet Union and the Cold War
(New York, 2007), p.43.

101
. See especially N. Naimark, ‘Stalin and Europe in the Post-war Period, 1945–1953. Issues and Problems’,
Journal of Modern History
2 (2004), pp.28–56.

102
. Pechatnov, ‘Soviet Union’, pp.8–9.

103
. G. Kennan,
Memoirs 1925
–
1950
(Boston, 1967), pp.549–51, 557, 555.

104
. H. Truman,
1946
–
1952. Years of Trial and Hope
(New York, 1965), vol. ii, p.125.

105
. Cited in Leffler,
Preponderance
, p.190.

106
. Pechatnov, ‘Soviet Union’, p.13.

107
. Truman,
Years of Trial
, vol. ii, p.129.

108
. P. Ginsborg,
A History of Contemporary Italy: Society and Politics, 1943
–
1988
(Harmondsworth, 1990), p.116.

109
. Kennan,
Memoirs
, p.559.

110
. M. Hogan,
The Marshall Plan. America, Britain, and the Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1947
–
1952
(Cambridge, 1987), pp.427–30.

111
. For this term, see M. Hogan,
A Cross of Iron. Harry S. Truman and the Origins of the National Security State, 1945
–
1954
(Cambridge, 1998), pp.312–14.

112
. V. Pechatnov,
Ot soiuza – k kholodnoi voine. Sovetsko-amerikanskie otnosheniia v 1945
–
1947 gg.
(Moscow, 2006), pp.158–9.

113
. V. Zubok and C. Pleshakov,
Inside the Kremlin’s Cold War: from Stalin to Khrushchev
(Cambridge, Mass., 1996), pp.50–3.

114
. Toranska,
Oni
, p.257.

115
. See L. Gibianskii, ‘Kak voznik Kominform. Po novym arkhivnym materialam’,
Novaia i noveishaia istoriia
4 (1993), pp.131–52; Zubok and Pleshakov,
Inside the Kremlin
, pp.125–33.

116
. P. Spriano,
Stalin and the European Communists
(London, 1985), pp.292 ff.

117
. Van Ree,
Political Thought
, pp.252–3.

118
. S. Pons, ‘Stalin and the Italian Communists’, in Leffler and Painter (eds.),
Origins
, p.213.

119
.
New York Times
, 2 May 1950; for a full account of these ‘occupations’, see Richard Fried,
The Russians are Coming! The Russians are Coming! Pageantry and Patriotism in Cold-War America
(Oxford, 1998), ch.3.

120
.
Zagovor obrechennykh
(1950), dir. M. Kalatozov.

121
. For the Soviet side, see Chapter Seven. For American mobilization and the Cold War, see L. McEnaney, ‘Cold War Mobilization and Domestic Politics’, forthcoming, in
Cambridge History of the Cold War
, vol. i; L. McEnaney,
Civil Defense Begins at Home: Militarization Meets Everyday Life in the Fifties
(Princeton, 2000).

122
. Ginsborg,
History of Contemporary Italy
, p.187.

123
. Several hundred were also imprisoned and two, the Rosenbergs, were executed. See E. Schrecker,
Many are the Crimes: McCarthyism in America
(Boston, 1998), p.xiii.

124
. For the various groups which took part in the anti-Communist campaigns, see ibid., pp.x ff.

125
. Though it was never entirely dominant. See R. Fried, ‘Voting against the Hammer and Sickle: Communism as an Issue in American Politics’, in W. Chafe (ed.),
The Achievement of American Liberalism: The New Deal and Its Legacies
(New York, 2003), pp.99–127.

126
. G. Gerstle,
American Crucible. Race and Nation in the Twentieth Century
(Princeton, 2001), pp.245–6.

127
. D. Caute,
The Dancer Defects
:
The Struggle for Cultural Supremacy during the Cold War
(Oxford, 2003), pp.26–7.

128
. Gerstle,
American Crucible
, pp.249–56.

129
. For the breach between Jews and Communism, see Y. Slezkine,
The Jewish Century
(Princeton, 2004), pp.313–15.

130
. G. Lundestad, ‘Empire by Invitation? The United States and Western Europe, 1945–1952’,
Journal of Peace Research
3 (1986), pp.263–77.

131
. NSC 51, US Policy towards Southeast Asia, 1 July 1949. Declassified Documents Reference System.

132
. Djilas,
Conversations
, p.141.

1
. Ho Chi Minh,
On Revolution. Selected Writings 1920
–
1966
(London, 1967), p.5.

2
. For this episode, see W. Duiker,
Ho Chi Minh: a Life
(New York, 2000), pp.57–62.

3
. Brocheux is sceptical of this. See P. Brocheux,
Ho Chi Minh. A Biography
, trans. C. Duiker (New York, 2007), p.26.

4
. E. Manela,
The Wilsonian Moment: Self-determination and the International Origins of Anticolonial Nationalism
(Oxford, 2007), p.107.

5
. Mao Zedong, ‘Study the Extremist Party’, 14 July 1919, in
Mao’s Road to Power. Revolutionary Writings, 1912
–
1949
[
MRPRW
], ed. S. Schram (Armonk, NY, 1992), vol. i, p.332.

6
. Manela,
Wilsonian Moment
, pp.23–30.

7
. Duiker,
Ho
, pp.46–55.

8
. Cited in Brocheux,
Ho
, p.21.

9
. Cited in Duiker,
Ho
, p.82.

10
. Ho,
On Revolution
, p.5.

11
. Ho Chi Minh,
Textes, 1914
–
1969
, ed. A. Ruscio (Paris, 1990), p.21, translation from Brocheux,
Ho
, p.12.

12
.
Pervyi s”ezd narodov vostoka. Stenograficheskie otchety
(Petrograd, 1920), p.5.

13
. M. Roy,
Memoirs
(Bombay, 1964), p.225.

14
. Ibid., p.306.

15
. Ibid.

16
. Ibid., p.379.

17
. Lu Xun, ‘A Madman’s Diary’, in Lu Hsun,
Selected Stories
(New York, 2003), pp.8, 18.

18
. L. Ou-Fan Lee, ‘Literary Trends: The Quest for Modernity, 1895–1927’, in M. Goldman and L. Ou-Fan Lee,
An Intellectual History of Modern China
(Cambridge, 2002), p.188.

19
. Cited in V. Schwarcz,
The Chinese Enlightenment: Intellectuals and the Legacy of the May Fourth Movement of 1919
(Berkeley, 1986), p.110.

20
. Cited in ibid., p.109.

21
. L. Feigon,
Chen Duxiu: Founder of the Chinese Communist Party
(Princeton, 1983), p.104.

22
. M. Meisner,
Li Ta-Chao and the Origins of Chinese Marxism
(New York, 1970), p.34.

23
. For this point, see Feigon,
Chen
, p.145.

24
. D.-S. Suh,
The Korean Communist Movement, 1918
–
1948
(Princeton, 1967), p.132.

25
.
Thanh nien,
20 February 1927, cited in Hu`ynh Kim Khánh,
Vietnamese Communism, 1925
–
1945
(Ithaca, 1982), p.80.

26
. W. Duiker,
The Communist Road to Power in Vietnam
(Boulder, 1996), pp.27–8.

27
. S. Wilson, ‘The Comintern and the Japanese Communist Party’, in T. Rees and A. Thorpe (eds.),
International Communism and the Communist International, 1919
–
1943
(Manchester, 1998), pp.285–307.

28
. Schwarcz,
Chinese Enlightenment
, pp.128–36.

29
. ‘The True Story of Ah Q’, in Lu Hsun,
Selected Stories
, pp.65–112.

30
. P. Short,
Mao: a Life
(London, 1999), p.86.

31
. Cited in Feigon,
Chen
, pp.152–3.

32
. This account is from S. Smith,
A Road is Made: Communism in Shanghai 1920
–
1927
(Honolulu, 2000), pp.59–60.

33
. Zhang Guotao,
The Rise of the Chinese Communist Party. The Autobiography of Chang Kuo-t’ao
(Lawrence, Kans., 1971), vol. i, p.139.

34
. J. Price,
Cadres, Commanders and Commissars. The Training of the Chinese Communist Leadership
(Folkestone, 1976), pp.31–8.

35
. Ibid., pp.90–3.

36
. Yu Miin-Ling ‘Chiang Kaishek and the Policy of Alliance’, in R. Felber, M. Titarenko and A. Grigoriev,
The Chinese Revolution in the 1920s. Between Triumph and Disaster
(London, 2002), pp.98–124.

37
. S. Schram,
Mao Tse-tung
(Harmondsworth, 1966), p.48.

38
. E. Snow,
Red Star over China
(Harmondsworth, 1972), pp.153–6.

39
. A. Smedley,
China Correspondent
(London, 1984), pp.121–2.

40
. Mao Zedong, 1 April 1917,
MRPRW
, vol. i, p.113.

41
. Ibid., p.124.

42
. S. Schram,
The Thought of Mao Tse-Tung
(Cambridge, 1989), p.27.

43
. H. Van de Ven,
From Friend to Comrade: the Founding of the Chinese Communist Party, 1920
–
1927
(Berkeley, 1991), p.45.

44
. Schram,
Thought of Mao
, p.46.

45
. Li Zhisui,
The Private Life of Chairman Mao: the Memoirs of Mao’s Personal Physician
, trans. Tai Hung-chao (London, 1996), pp.77, 103.

46
. Snow,
Red Star
, pp.112–13.

47
. N. Knight,
Rethinking Mao. Explorations in Mao Zedong’s Thought
(Lanham, 2007), ch.4.

48
. Schram,
Thought of Mao
, p.39.

49
. For this episode, see J. Chang and J. Halliday,
Mao: the Unknown Story
(London, 2006), p.125.

50
. H. Van de Ven, ‘New States of War. Communist and Nationalist Warfare and State Building, 1928–1934’, in Van de Ven (ed.),
Warfare in Chinese History
(Leiden, 2000), p.335.

51
. Ibid., p.361.

52
. For the contrast between the two military models, see ibid., p.323.

53
. Mao Zedong, May 1930,
MRPRW
, vol. iii, pp.296–418. See also Short,
Mao
, pp.304–6.

54
. Mao Zedong, June 1930,
MRPRW
, vol. iii, p.445.

55
. Short,
Mao
, p.286.

56
. For the myth of the Long March, see D. Apter and T. Saich,
Revolutionary Discourse in Mao’s Republic
(Cambridge, Mass., 1994), p.85 and
passim
.

57
. This is argued in Chang and Halliday,
Mao
, pp.254–5.

58
. Snow,
Red Star
, p.64.

59
. For Mao’s definition of ‘Sinification’, see
Selected Works of Mao Tse-tung
[
SWMT
] (Beijing, 1961), vol. ii, p.209.

60
. Smedley,
China Correspondent
, p.122.

61
. For this point, see Schram,
Thought of Mao
, p.92. For the use of
datong
see
SWMT
, vol. ii, pp.148–9.

62
. Knight,
Rethinking Mao
, pp.129–30.

63
. Though this could be exaggerated. Mao first entered the realm of Marxist philosophy with a set of lectures on Dialectical Materialism in Yenan that were very reliant on Soviet sources:
MRPRW
, vol. iv, pp.573–670.

64
. See, for instance, his notes on
A Course in Dialectical Materialism
by M. Shirokov and others, November 1936–April 1937,
MRPRW
, vol. iv, pp.674–5.

65
. For the complexity of the relationship between Marxism and Chinese ideas in Mao’s thinking, see Knight,
Rethinking Mao
, chs.5, 7.

66
. Mao’s attitude to this issue is controversial. Schram emphasizes the ‘voluntarism’ of Mao – his emphasis on will rather than economics, in S. Schram, ‘The Marxist’, in D. Wilson (ed.),
Mao Tse-tung in the Scales of History
(Cambridge, 1977), pp.35–69. For Mao’s Marxist orthodoxy, see A. Walder, ‘Marxism, Maoism and Social Change’,
Modern China
1 (1977), pp.101–18. Nick Knight argues that Mao is firmly within an ambiguous Marxist tradition. Knight,
Rethinking Mao
, ch.6, esp. p.189.

67
. Knight,
Rethinking Mao
, p.141.

68
. M. Selden,
China in Revolution. The Yenan Way Revisited
(Armonk, NY, 1995), p.121.

69
. G. Benton, ‘The Yenan “Literary Opposition”’,
New Left Review
92 (1975), pp.102–5; Dai Qing,
Wang Shiwei and ‘Wild Lilies’. Rectification and Purges in the Chinese Communist Party, 1942
–
1944
, eds. D. Apter and T. Cheek (Armonk, NY, 1994).

70
. Selden,
China
; Apter and Saich,
Revolutionary Discourse
, pp.211–13.

71
. For rectification, see Apter and Saich,
Revolutionary Discourse
, pp.279–88.