The Theory and Practice of Group Psychotherapy (121 page)

28
Notes for
Table 8.1
:

^a
R. Klein and R. Carroll, “Patient Characteristics and Attendance Patterns in Outpatient Group Psychotherapy,”
International Journal of Group Psychotherapy
36 (1986): 115–32.

^b
M. McCallum and W. Piper, “A Controlled Study for Effectiveness and Patient Suitability for Short-Term Group Psychotherapy,”
International Journal of Group Psychotherapy
40 (1990): 431–52.

^c
M. McCallum, W. Piper, and A. Joyce, “Dropping Out from Short-Term Group Therapy,”
Psychotherapy
29 (1992): 206–13.

^d
Nash et al., “Some Factors.”

^e
B. Kotkov, “The Effects of Individual Psychotherapy on Group Attendance,”
International Journal of Group Psychotherapy
5 (1955): 280–85.

^f
S. Rosenzweig and R. Folman, “Patient and Therapist Variable Affecting Premature Termination in Group Psychotherapy,”
Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice
11 (1974): 76–79.

^g
Yalom, “Group Therapy Dropouts.”

^h
E. Berne, “Group Attendance: Clinical and Theoretical Considerations,”
International Journal of Group Psychotherapy
5 (1955): 392–403.

ⁱ
Johnson,
Group Psychotherapy
.

^j
M. Grotjahn, “Learning from Dropout Patients: A Clinical View of Patients Who Discontinued Group Psychotherapy,”
International Journal of Group Psychotherapy
22 (1972): 306–19.

^k
L. Koran and R. Costell, “Early Termination from Group Psychotherapy,”
International Journal of Group Psychotherapy
24 (1973): 346–59.

^l
S. Budman, A. Demby, and M. Randall, “Short-Term Group Psychotherapy: Who Succeeds, Who Fails,”
Group
4 (1980): 3–16.

^m
M. Weiner, “Outcome of Psychoanalytically Oriented Group Therapy,”
Group
8 (1984): 3–12.

ⁿ
W. Piper, E. Debbane, J. Blenvenu et al., “A Comparative Study of Four Forms of Psychotherapy,”
Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology
52 (1984): 268–79.

^o
W. Stone and S. Rutan, “Duration of Treatment in Group Psychotherapy,”
International Journal of Group Psychotherapy
34 (1984): 93–109.

^p
K. Christiansen, K. Valbak, and A. Weeke, “Premature Termination in Analytic Group Therapy,”
Nordisk-Psykiatrisk-Tidsskrift
45 (1991): 377–82.

^q
R. MacNair and J. Corazzini, “Clinical Factors Influencing Group Therapy Dropouts,”
Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice and Training
31 (1994): 352-61.

^r
M. McCallum, W. Piper, J. Ogrodniczuk, and A. Joyce, “Early Process and Dropping Out.”

^s
T. Oei and T. Kazmierczak, “Factors Associated with Dropout in a Group Cognitive Behavior Therapy for Mood Disorders,”
Behaviour Research and Therapy
35 (1997): 1025-30.

29
Yalom, “Group Therapy Dropouts.”

30
W. Piper, M. McCallum, and H. Azim,
Adaption to Loss Through Short-Term Group Psychotherapy
(New York: Guilford Press, 1992).

31
McCallum et al., “Early Process and Dropping Out.”

32
W. Stone, “Group Psychotherapy with the Chronically Mentally Ill,” in
Comprehensive Group Psychotherapy
, eds. M. Kaplan and B. Sadock. (Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1993), 419–29.

33
M. Horowitz, “The Recall of Interrupted Group Tasks: An Experimental Study of Individual Motivation in Relation to Group Goals,” In
Group Dynamics: Research and Theory
, ed. D. Cartwright and A. Zander (New York: Row, Peterson, 1962), 370–94.

34
L. Coch and J. French Jr., “Overcoming Resistance to Change,” in Cartwright and Zander,
Group Dynamics,
31–41. E. Stotland, “Determinants of Attraction to Groups,”
Journal of Social Psychology
49 (1959): 71–80.

35
D. Lundgren and D. Miller, “Identity and Behavioral Changes in Training Groups,”
Human Relations Training News
(Spring 1965).

36
Lieberman, Yalom, Miles,
Encounter Groups
, p. 324.

37
I. Yalom and P. Houts, unpublished data, 1966.

38
S. Schachter, “Deviation, Rejection, and Communication,” in Cartwright and Zander,
Group Dynamics,
260–85.

39
H. Leavitt, “Group Structure and Process: Some Effects of Certain Communication Patterns on Group Performance,” in
Readings in Social Psychology,
eds. E. Maccoby, T. Newcomb, E. Hartley (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1958), 175–83.

40
J. Jackson, “Reference Group Processes in a Formal Organization,” in Cartwright and Zander,
Group Dynamics,
120–40.

41
L. Festinger, S. Schachter, and K. Back, “The Operation of Group Standards,” in Cartwright and Zander,
Group Dynamics,
241–59.

42
C. Anderson, O. John, D. Kelter, and A. Kring, “Who Attains Social Status? Effects of Personality and Physical Attractiveness in Social Groups,”
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
8 (2001): 116–32.

43
M. Sherif, “Group Influences Upon the Formation of Norms and Attitudes,” in Maccoby et al.,
Readings in Social Psychology,
219–32.

44
S. Asch, “Interpersonal Influence: Effects of Group Pressure Upon the Modification and Distortion of Judgments,” in Maccoby et al.,
Readings in Social Psychology,
175–83.

45
P. Leiderman, “Attention and Verbalization: Differentiated Responsivity of Cardiovascular and Electrodermo Systems,”
Journal of Psychosomatic Research
15 (1971): 323–28.

46
Lieberman, Yalom, and Miles,
Encounter Groups
.

47
Schachter, “Deviation, Rejection, and Communication.”

48
McCallum et al., “Early Process and Dropping Out.”

49
R. Harrison and B. Lubin, “Personal Style, Group Composition, and Learning—Part I,”
Journal of Applied Behavioral Science
1 (1965): 286–94.

50
Similar findings were reported in the NIMH trial of the treatment of depression. Clients with poor interpersonal functioning could not utilize interpersonal therapy effectively. (S. Sotsky et al., “Patient Predictors of Response to Psychotherapy and Pharmacotherapy: Findings in the NIMH Treatment of Depression Collaborative Research Program,”
American Journal of Psychiatry
148 (1991): 997–1008.)

51
R. Lee, M. Draper, and S. Lee, “Social Connectedness, Dysfunctional Interpersonal Behaviors, and Psychological Distress: Testing a Mediator Model,”
Journal of Counseling Psychology
48 (2001): 310–18.

52
Clients do well with intensive psychotherapies if they have mature relationship capacities (measured by the Quality of Object Relations Scale (QOR) (H. Azim et al., “The Quality of Object Relations Scale,”
Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic
55 (1991): 323–43). Clients with less mature QOR scores do poorly with intensive therapy, often experiencing interpretations as hurtful criticisms. These clients do much better with the more supportive therapies. (A. Joyce, M. McCallum, W. Piper, and J. Ogrodniczuk, “Role Behavior Expectancies and Alliance Change in Short-Term Individual Psychotherapy,”
Journal of Psychotherapy Practice and Research
9 (2000): 213–25.) Higher psychological-mindedness, not surprisingly, is a general predictor of positive outcome for all psychotherapies. (Joyce et al., ibid; Piper et al., “Patient Personality and Time-Limited Group.”)

53
M. Pines, “The Self as a Group: The Group as a Self,” in
Self-Experiences in Group: Objective and Self-Psychological Pathways to Human Understanding,
ed. I. Harwood and M. Pines (Philadelphia: Taylor & Francis, 1998): 24–29. A. Gray, “Difficult Terminations in Group Therapy: A Self-Psychologically Informed Perspective,”
Group
25 (2001): 27–39.

54
M. Leszcz, “Group Psychotherapy of the Characterologically Difficult Patient,”
International Journal of Group Psychotherapy
39 (1989): 311–35.

55
Nash et al., “Some Factors.”

56
H. Bernard and S. Drob, “Premature Termination: A Clinical Study,”
Group
13 (1989): 11–22.

57
M. Seligman, “The Effectiveness of Psychotherapy.”

58
L. Bellak, “On Some Limitations of Dyadic Psychotherapy and the Role of the Group Modalities,”
International Journal of Group Psychotherapy
30 (1980): 7–21. J. Rutan and A. Alonso, “Group Therapy, Individual Therapy, or Both?”
International Journal of Group Psychotherapy
32 (1982): 267–82.

59
Grunebaum and Kates, “Whom to Refer.”

60
Frances, Clarkin, and Marachi, “Selection Criteria,” 245.

61
H. Swiller, “Alexithymia: Treatment Utilizing Combined Individual and Group Psychotherapy,”
International Journal of Group Psychotherapy
38 (1988): 47–61.

62
L. Horowitz and J. Vitkis, “The Interpersonal Basis of Psychiatric Symptomatology,”
Clinical Psychology Review
6 (1986): 443–69.

63
P. Crits-Christoph and M. Connolly, “Patient Pretreatment Predictors of Outcome,” in
Psychodynamic Treatment Research
, ed. N. Miller, L. Luborsky, J. Barber, and J. Docherty (New York: Basic Books, 1993), 185.

64
I. Yalom, P. Houts, S. Zimerberg, and K. Rand, “Predictions of Improvement in Group Therapy,”
Archives of General Psychiatry
17 (1967): 159–68.

65
The forty clients studied were adult, middle class, well educated, psychologically sophisticated outpatients who suffered from neurotic or characterological problems. Outcome was evaluated by a team of raters who, on the basis of a structured interview, evaluated (with excellent reliability) change in symptoms, functioning, and relationships. The clients also independently rated their own outcome, using the same scale. Psychological-mindedness was measured by subscale of the California Personality Inventory and by the therapists after an initial screening interview. The therapists rated each client on a seven-point scale after the initial interview for how well they thought he or she would do in therapy. Previous self-disclosure was measured by a modification of the Jourard Self-Disclosure Questionnaire (S. Jourard, “Self-Disclosure Patterns in British and American College Females,”
Journal of Social Psychology
54 (1961): 315–20). The clients’ attraction to group therapy and their general popularity in the group were measured by a group cohesiveness questionnaire and a sociometric questionnaire.

66
C. Anderson, “Who Attains Social Status?”

67
Using a comprehensive personality inventory researchers found, unsurprisingly, that the Extraversion factor (exemplified by individuals who are energetic, sociable, assertive, and display positive emotionality) is strongly associated with popularity. (R. McCrae and R. Costa, “The NEO Personality Inventory: Using the Five-Factor Model in Counseling,”
Journal of Counseling and Development
69 (1991): 367–72.) These individuals draw others to them because their ready and warm responsiveness rewards and encourages overtures for engagement. (R. Depue, “A Neurobiological Framework for the Structure of Personality and Emotion: Implications for Personality Disorders,” in
Major Theories of Personality Disorders,
ed. J. Clarkin and M. Lenzenweger [New York: Guilford Press, 1996], 342–90.)

68
Lieberman, Yalom, and Miles,
Encounter Groups
.

69
J. Melnick and G. Rose, “Expectancy and Risk-Taking Propensity,”
Small Group Behavior
10 (1979): 389–401. Scales: Jackson Risk-Taking inventory and the Hill Interactional Matrix. Sociometric assessment: Depth of Involvement Scale (Evensen and Bednar), Moos and Humphrey Group Environment Scale.

70
J. Frank and J. Frank,
Persuasion and Healing: A Comparative Study of Psychotherapy
, 3rd ed. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991), pp. 132–53. W. Piper, “Client Variables,” in
Handbook of Group Psychotherapy
, ed. A. Fuhriman and G. Burlingame (New York: Wiley, 1994): 83–113.

71
Joyce et al., “Role Behavior Expectancies and Alliance Change.” J. Rooney and R. Hanson, “Predicting Attrition from Treatment Programs for Abusive Men,”
Journal of Family Violence
16 (2001): 131–49.

72
Lothstein, “The Group Psychotherapy Dropout Phenomenon.” McCallum et al., “Early Process and Dropping Out.”

73
J. Frank, “Some Determinants, Manifestations, and Effects of Cohesiveness in Therapy Groups,”
International Journal of Group Psychotherapy
7 (1957): 53–63.

74
Oei and Kazmierczak, “Factors Associated with Dropout.”

75
The amount of “group work” accomplished (as reported by the client, comembers, and the group therapist) predicts outcome. (Piper et al., “Psychological Mindedness, Work, and Outcome.”) Piper and colleagues define “group work” in clear terms: “to work in therapy means that you are trying to explain a problem that you are facing by exploring your own contributions to it.” It involves taking responsibility for one’s role in one’s difficulties and helping other members do the same. (M. McCallum, W. Piper, and J. O’Kelly, “Predicting Patient Benefit from a Group-Oriented Evening Treatment Program,”
International Journal of Group Psychotherapy
47 (1997): 291–314, 300.)