Why Leaders Lie (20 page)

Browne Center for International Politics, x

bullshitting, 106
n
2

Bundy, McGeorge, 49

Burnham, James, 60

Bush administration

     concealment, 17–18, 49–55

     on inter-state lying, 121
n
46

     Iraq War, lies on, 49–55, 59, 101, 102, 122
n
49

     lying about adversary’s capabilities, 38

     on Saddam’s removal, 121
n
45

     fearmongering in, 49–55, 59

Cheney, Dick, fearmongering, 51–54

Churchill, Winston, 40, 78

Cohen, Richard, 59

Cold War

     Japan and United States, strategic cover-ups, 67–68

     nationalist myths during, 73

     United States after, 101

Concealment, 9, 13, 15, 25 (
see also
deceptions)

     in Bush administration, 17–18, 49–55

     characteristics, 19

     in international politics, 27

     as legitimate, 10

     versus strategic cover-ups, 64

Council on Foreign Relations, New York, ix

counter-spinners, 19

courts, lying and spinning in, 17

Cuban Missile Crisis, 58–59, 66–67

dangers, international lying.
See specific lying/lies

deception campaign, 45

     in Bush administration, 49–55, 59, 62

     in Johnson administration, 47–49

     in Roosevelt administration, 46–47

     in Truman administration, 56

deceptions, 7, 21, 24

     definition of, 15

     in foreign-policy decisions, 27–28

     forms of, 16–20 (
see also
concealment; lying; spinning)

     in military organization, 114
n
31

decision-making process, inter-state lies, 27

democracies

     fearmongering and, 59–60

     liberal lies and, 78

     masking controversial policies, 69–70

     pervasive lies, impact of, 85–86

     transparency and honesty, benefits of, 84

democratic institutions, fearmongering in, 102

dishonesty, 30, 83, 84, 85, 89, 101

distortion, 17

Downes, Alexander, 77

downplaying hostile intentions

     to avoid attack, 35–36

     to facilitate attack, 31, 34–35

downplaying military capabilities, 32–34

Duelfer Report

     on deceiving the world, 4–5

     by Iraq Survey Group, 4

Eisenhower administration

     EDC Treaty ratification of, 41–42

     lying about surveillance program, 38–39

     nuclear weapons, abandoning of, 32

elites

     fearmongering by, 59–62

     liberal lies by, 77–82

     nationalist myths by, 74–76

empty-threat strategy, 36–37

European Defense Community (EDC) Treaty ratification, 41–42

European Union, creation of, 114–15
n
35

exaggeration, 17 (
see also
fearmongering)

     of Soviet ICBM arsenal, 100

     of state’s capabilities, inter-state lies, 31–32

     of threat, 23

false assertions, 18

falsehood (
see also specific lies/lying
)

     Taylor on, 19

     strategic benefits by, 99

fearmongering, 21, 22, 45–62, 102

     deception campaign, 45

     and democracies, 59–60

     by elites, reasons for, 59–62

     in Franklin administration, 46–47

     and geography, 61

     Gulf of Tonkin incident, and Johnson administration, 47–49

     Iraq War, and Bush administration, 49–55

     manipulating information, 57–58

     to mobilize public to support government’s policies, 55–59

     to mobilize public to support war, 61–62

     national security, threat to, 55

     and nondemocracies, 60

     perils of, 90–92

     powerful incentives to, 57

     preventive wars, prohibition of, 61–62

     threat inflation, 61, 91

     in Truman administration, 56

     USS
Greer
incident, and Roosevelt administration, 46–47

foreign policy, lying/lies in, 21–24 (
see also
fearmongering; ignoble cover-ups; inter-state lies; nationalist mythmaking; liberal lies; strategic cover-ups; social imperialism)

foreign threat, lying about, 21, 22

formal agreements, inter-state lies, 40

Franco-Prussian War (1870), 37–38

French government, 72

Franks, General Tommy, 51

Gelb, Leslie, 57

geography

     fearmongering and, 61

     strategic cover-ups and, 68

Germany (
see also
Nazi Germany; Adlof Hitler)

     military, violation of the Versailles Treaty, 67

     nationalist myths by elites, 72–73

     Wehrmacht, the, 72–73

government bureaucrats, fearmongering, 45

Greece

     lying about budget deficits, 41

     behavior during Moroccan Crisis, 36

Greer
incident, 46

     fearmongering, 91

     Roosevelt’s lies about, 46–47, 48, 100

     strategic benefits by, 99

Gulf of Tonkin incident, Johnson administration’s lies about, 7, 47–49, 100, 117
n
18

Gulf War, 4

Haass, Richard, 54

Hastings, Max, 80

Harvard University, concealment case, 105
n
11

hiding incompetence, strategic cover-ups, 64–65, 68

historical error, 71

Hitler, Adolf, 109
n
8

     downplaying hostile intentions, 34

     lies about German military capabilities, 31

home front, risks at

     by international lies, 84–86

     by routine lying, 86

     by strategic cover-ups, 92

honesty, 15, 25, 55, 84, 85, 89

humiliation, international lies, 88–89

Hussein, Saddam, charges against WMD possession, 3–4, 5, 49–55, 62, 104
n
4

ignoble cover-ups, 23

impartial judge, role of advisory system’ view, 107
n
4

incompetence hiding/masking, 64–65, 68, 125
n
11

intentions, 15

     difficulty in assessing, 29

international legitimacy, and nationalist myths, 72

international lies/lying/lies (
see also
foreign policy, lying/lies in;
also specific lying/lies
)

     backfiring, 101

     consequences of frequent/routine lying, 28–30, 44, 84, 86

     downside of, 83–97

     fearmongering, perils of, 90–92

     home front, consequences at, 84–86

     inter-state lying, dangers of, 86–90

     liberal lies, potential cost of, 97

     
on military forces, 105–6
n
15

     nationalist mythmaking, risks of, 95–97

     strategic cover-ups, hazards of, 92–95

international negotiations, bluffing in, 41

inter-state lies, 12, 21

     about adversary’s capabilities, 38

     backfiring of, 84–86, 88–90

     circumstances for, 42–44

     to conceal aggressive action against another country, 35

     consequences of frequent lying, 28–30, 44

     dangers at home front, 86

     deliberate deception campaign, 28

     to downplay hostile intentions, to avoid attack, 35–36

     to downplay hostile intentions, to disguise attack, 34–35

     to downplay importance of military capabilities, 32–34

     effective, 30

     empty-threat strategy, 36–37

     to exaggerate state’s capabilities to deter adversary, 31–32

     versus fearmongering, 63

     to gain advantage in wartime military operations, 40

     to get attention of allies, 38

     historical records, lack of, 27–30, 44

     intentions, 29

     international consequences, of, 87–88

     low politics versus high politics, 29–30

     to provoke attack on others and self, 37–38

     quantity, 26–27

     about spying or sabotage, 38–40

     strategic cover-ups, 68

     strategic deception campaigns about, 40

     during treaties and formal agreements negotiation, 40–42

     trust and verification, 28–29

Iran-Contra scandal, 108
n
2

Iraq, ongoing wars in, 102

Iraq War

     and Bush administration, 5, 17–18, 49–55

     weapon of mass destruction as a reason for, 3

Israel

     and American Jewish community, nationalist myths, 73–74

     Lavon affair, 39

     lie about nascent nuclear weapons program, 32–33

     and Palestinian conflict, 74–75

     post–Qibya massacre behavior, 65

Japan

     secret agreement with United States during Cold War, 67–68

Joffre, Marshal Joseph, 64–65

Johnson, Lyndon B., 7

     Gulf of Tonkin, 47–49, 117
n
18

Jupiter missiles, falsehood on, 99–100

Kant, Immanuel, perspective on lying, 10

Katyn Forest incident, 79

Kennedy, John F., 35, 58–59, 66

Kenyan gulag for Mau Mau, British’s lie about, 67

Kershaw, Ian, 60

Khrushchev, Nikita, lie about ICBM capability, 31–32

Kissinger, Henry, 33, 37

     about strategic nuclear parity, 112
n
24

Kristol, Irving, 60

Lavon–Israel affair, 39

lawyers, 17

LeMay, General Curtis, 77

Leviathan
(Hobbes), 9

liberal lies, 22–23, 77–82

     circumstances for, 81–82

     to cover up their country’s ruthless behavior, 80–81

     democracies vs non-democracies, 77, 78

     to gain international legitimacy, 81

     international politics, 80

     potential cost of, 97

Lippmann, Walter, 60

Logevall, Fredrik, 48

Lone Star National Security Forum, x

lying/lies (
see also specific lying/lies
)

     acceptable situations in daily lives, 19, 87

     absolutist perspective, 10, 11

     analysis of, 11–12

     broad definition, 26

     Bush’s claim, 120–21
n
40

     characteristics, 18

     and concealment, moral philosophers view on, 105
n
6

     conclusions about, 99–102

     and deception, 9

     definition of, 16

     effective, 30

     facts falsification, 16, 18

     by government officials, downside of, 85

     by leaders, Powell’s view on, 109
n
7

     narrower definition, 27

     necessary, for international politics, 6

     normal life, reprehensible behavior, 6

     to public, 57–58, 101

     reasons for, 11, 30–42

     revelation of, 41

     as shameful act, 19, 99

     between States (
see
inter-state lying/lies)

     strategic benefits of, 99–100

     utilitarian perspective, 10, 11

“Lying Baptists,” 104
n
5

Madoff, Bernie, 84

Mau Mau independence fighters, 67

McNamara, Robert, 37, 49, 58

memories, 15

misconceived lie, 90

missile gap, 32

MIT Political Science Department, x

Moroccan Crisis, Germany’s behavior during, 36

Morris, Benny, 66

Moscow, lie on biological weapons handling, 33–34

motivation, through lying, 22

national interest, 77

nationalist myths, 21, 22, 71–76, 126
n
5

     aggressive behavior, 95–96

     circumstances for, 74–76

     controversial events, 76

     country’s founding, disputes about, 75

     by elites, reasons for, 72–74

     to gain international legitimacy, 72

     for group solidarity, 72

     public’s expectation, 72

     risks of, 95–97

     state-building process, nationalist myths during, 75–76

     wartime, 75, 96–97

nation-state creation, 71, 75, 76

NATO, nuclear policy during Cold War, 36–37

Nazi Germany (
see also
Germany; Adlof Hitler)

     efforts to blame Poland for starting World War II, 79–80

     liberal lies by, 79–80

     nationalist myths, 73

negative aspects, international lying (
see specific lying/lies
)

Nixon, Richard, lying to deceive Castro, 35

noble lie, 12

nondemocracies, 60, 77

     fearmongering and, 59–60

     liberal lies and, 77

     masking controversial policies and, 69–70

Ousby, Ian, 65

overcoming biases, 15

Palestine

     and Israel conflict, 74–75

     and Zionism, nationalist myths, 73–74

Pentagon

     Bush briefing on, 119–20
n
35

pervasive lying, downsides of, 83–84

Poland, liberal lies on, 79–80

policymaking

     fearmongering and, 57–58

     Iraq war, British policymakers, 54–55

     lying and, 21–21

     lying, impact of, 85

Ponsonby, Arthur, 43

Powell, Jody, 31

     lie about military operation to free American hostages, 35

Powell, Colin, 50, 55

preventive wars, prohibition of, 61–62

promiscuous lying, 85

psychological scare campaign, 56

public support, through lying, 21, 55–59, 61–62

Qibya massacre, Israel’s strategic cover-ups, 65–66

Reagan, Ronald, 28, 108
n
2

Renan, Ernest, 71

Rich, Norman, 36

risks, international lying (
see specific lying/lies
)