X-Men and the Mutant Metaphor
Read X-Men and the Mutant Metaphor Online
Authors: Joseph J.; Darowski
X-Men and the Mutant Metaphor
X-Men and the Mutant Metaphor
Race and Gender in the Comic Books
Joseph J. Darowski
Rowman & Littlefield
Lanham • Boulder • New York • Toronto • Plymouth, UK
Published by Rowman & Littlefield
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Copyright © 2014 by Rowman & Littlefield
All rights reserved.
No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means, including information storage and retrieval systems, without written permission from the publisher, except by a reviewer who may quote passages in a review.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Darowski, Joseph J., author.
X-Men and the Mutant Metaphor : Race and Gender in the Comic Books / Joseph J. Darowski.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4422-3207-5 (cloth : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-1-4422-3208-2 (ebook)
1. X-men (Comic strip). 2. X-Men (Fictitious characters). 3. Race in literature. 4. Gender identity in literature. 5. Comic books, strips, etc.—United States. I. Title.
PN6728.X2D37 2014
741.5'973—dc23 2013044977
™ The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992.
Printed in the United States of America
Dedicated to Gary Hoppenstand
Thanks for the great guidance and intriguing discussions.
Contents
Chapter 1: Understanding the X-Men
Chapter 2: Intriguing Concept, Uneven Execution
Chapter 3: Relaunching and Reimagining
Chapter 4: Adding Depth and Exploring Prejudice
Chapter 5: Broadening the Mutant Metaphor
Chapter 6: Reestablishing the Metaphor
Acknowledgments
First, I’d like to thank the dissertation committee who guided the earliest stages of this project. Drs. Gary Hoppenstand, Sheila Contreras, James Seaton, and Maria Bruno all helped improve my work and focus my thoughts. My interest in researching superhero comic books was first helped along by my master’s thesis committee at Brigham Young University, so a similar thank-you is in order for Drs. Steve Walker, Frank Fox, and Phillip Snyder. Several comic book writers were kind enough to respond to e-mails or interview requests while I was working on this research. Thank you to Chris Claremont, Roy Thomas, Mike Carey, Kurt Busiek, Fabien Nicieza, and Scott Lobdell. Also Ron Richards of
iFanboy.com
and Brian Cronin from
comicbookresources .com
were kind enough to respond to inquiries. The final chapter of this book would not have been possible without the help of my wife, Emily, and the statistics training she received while obtaining her PhD in psychology. Others who provided help with reading and feedback include Ben Phillips, Andrew Darowski, John Darowski, and Kay Darowski. I’d also like to thank Jack Kirby, Stan Lee, and all the subsequent creators who worked on the primary material examined in this study.
Introduction
I believe it is safe to say that every grad student at some point gets asked a question along the lines of “Why are you studying that?” or “What are you going to do with that?” If you’re researching human memory, Greek philosophy, international politics, or Irish literature, odds are you’re going to spend a fair amount of time explaining what it is you study and why it’s worthwhile. Not surprisingly, this is also true if you’re researching comic book superheroes.
Since entering graduate school and focusing my research on X-Men comic books, first at Brigham Young University and then at Michigan State University, I’ve been asked these questions with some frequency. I believe people who are asking some form of “Why are you studying that?” are actually asking one of four questions. There is the broadest version of the question, inquiring about the validity of working in a field that is not a hard science and does not appear to have a direct exit from grad school into the private sector. They mean “Why study the humanities?” Some individuals who see the value of studying the canon of literature or classic art might narrow their question to “Why study popular culture?” And then those who accept the importance of understanding our entertainment culture may ask “Why study comic books?” Finally, there are those who are asking the most pointed question: “Why study the X-Men?” Each of these questions is worth answering.
It is undeniable that there is immense value in studying hard sciences. Technological innovations, medical advances, and other obvious benefits make hard sciences very important to our society. However, to insist that because hard sciences are beneficial the humanities are somehow frivolous is a false dichotomy. There is great value in understanding culture. There is a distinct advantage in mastering critical thinking. There is true societal importance in thinking deeply about complex issues of race, gender, sexuality, culture, or religion. Those are some of the benefits that can come from studying the humanities.
Even those who accept the value of studying the great canon of literature or the art that has been produced in cultures all over the world may question the validity of studying popular culture. But how many people watch television compared with how many read Shakespeare? How many people listen to pop songs on the radio compared with those settling down to read Robert Frost? Perhaps the ability to properly analyze the content of popular culture and the effects it has on consumers is something we need more people to master. This is not in any way suggesting that Shakespeare shouldn’t be studied (another false dichotomy); I enjoy Shakespeare immensely. Popular culture is an important part of American society. Entertainment is one of America’s largest exports; it is part of a shared communal culture that many lament is disappearing. Thinking critically about our entertainment culture should be encouraged, not maligned.
But surely, some may say, we can study Alfred Hitchock and Fritz Lang without having to resort to studying comic books. Film can be art; comic books are part of the disposable detritus of youth culture. Just as with any medium of storytelling, there can be wonderful stories, thought-provoking narratives, and insightful commentary found in comic books. There can also be found completely forgettable, poorly made stories with little internal logic. It is silly to dismiss an entire mode of storytelling because of a social prejudice.
Obviously more “reputable” graphic novels such as Art Spiegelman’s
Maus
or Alison Bechdel’s
Fun Home
or Marjane Satrapi’s
Persepolis
are worth reading, but superhero comics? With mutants? The superhero genre has been greatly popularized in American culture, influencing every aspect of popular culture from video games to cartoons to blockbusters. But they were popularized in comic books. The serial storytelling in comic books allows for a fascinating opportunity to study a single narrative that spans decades. Regularly produced comic books mean a constantly evolving product that reflects changes in the society that produces and consumes the stories for entertainment. The need for a superhero implies something is broken in the system. With Superman it’s that there are threats too large for the system to handle. With Batman it’s that there is too much crime for the system to handle. With the X-Men, it’s that there is prejudice and hatred in the world because people are different. How those themes are explored by characters in bright costumes with crazy powers is worth examining. And how those themes are presented in a superhero narrative can lead to insights about our very culture.
Our entertainment, from comic books to television to movies, simultaneously reflects and influences our values, our prejudices, our sense of identity. I think understanding that process is important. I think it does matter. That’s why I study the X-Men.
Chapter One
Understanding the X-Men
It is important to establish parameters when undertaking a study of a subject with as much potential primary source material as the X-Men, or the project might never end. Because of the success of the X-Men franchise in comic books and other media, the breadth of potential material can be overwhelming. In light of the X-Men franchise’s humble beginnings as an unsuccessful comic book series, the vast amount of material produced featuring the X-Men in the last fifty years is surprising. The X-Men’s self-titled comic book series debuted in 1963 and limped along until 1970, at which point the series’ low sales resulted in Marvel ceasing publication of new adventures. Marvel reprinted the previously produced X-Men comics, but saw it as a losing investment to pay writers and artists to create original comic books featuring the team of mutant superheroes. In 1975, Marvel relaunched the series with mostly new characters and new creators behind the scenes. The result was much more successful than the original series.
Soon, spin-off titles began. Then miniseries and one-shots. And then media adaptations. Since that 1975 relaunch of the X-Men comic books series, there have been six blockbuster film adaptations, three successful animated series (as well as one produced pilot that failed to be picked up for a full series), and five X-Men video games. X-Men characters have also been used regularly in successful cartoon series such as
Spider-Man and his Amazing Friends
and
The Super Hero Squad
. In comic books, there have been nearly a hundred spin-off titles that were launched in the hopes they would become long-running continuous series (though most lasted much closer to twelve issues than
The Uncanny X-Men
’s almost six hundred issues), as well as hundreds of miniseries and one-shot comic books.
To examine all of the ancillary material that has been produced about the X-Men falls outside of the scope of this text. In this book, the first five hundred issues of
The Uncanny X-Men
series will be examined, with few of the myriad titles and adaptations that exist in the wider X-Men universe of comics being addressed in depth.
The Uncanny X-Men
will be used, as it is the primary X-Men title Marvel has published from 1963 until the present day (with occasional title changes, renumbering, and the already-noted reprint years notwithstanding).
This project will provide a close reading of the
Uncanny X-Men
comic book series with a particular focus on the portrayals of race and gender. In the course of the study, significant stories within the first five hundred issues of the series will be closely examined to ascertain what themes and messages concerning race and gender can be found. The X-Men series was chosen because it is one of the most prominent franchises in the comic book industry, and it has, at its core, what many identify as a “minority metaphor.” The X-Men are mutants, people who develop special powers because they were born different from normal humans. Besides the expected comic book supervillains, the X-Men battle prejudice and are hated and feared by normal humans in the Marvel comic book universe. The X-Men are considered one of the most socially relevant and diverse superhero comic book titles (Schedeen). An analysis of how this series actually employs that metaphor will be enlightening, especially because of the decades-long run the series has had. The use of the mutant metaphor has adapted through the years to remain relevant to the constantly changing social context of the producers and consumers of the series.
There is a popular perception among creators, fans, and academics that the X-Men is one of the most diverse franchises in the industry. This study does not look at the many other titles Marvel Comics has published in the X-Men franchise, but in looking at the number of characters that appear in
The Uncanny X-Men
it reveals that the series is dominated by white male characters on the heroic team and that the most racially and ethnically diverse group of characters in X-Men comic books are actually the villains the X-Men battle. Although the themes that are explored in the series consistently condemn prejudice and discrimination, the actual characters used often portray the heroism of white characters with the threat coming from minority characters. On the one hand, this situation is not surprising in an industry whose foundation rests on the enormous popularity of white male characters such as Superman, Batman, and Captain America. But it is surprising in light of the general perception of the X-Men franchise.
The X-Men
was first published in 1963, during the reinvigoration of the superhero genre that occurred in the Silver Age of comics. The superhero genre had been a popular staple of comic book publishers since Superman’s first appearance in 1938’s
Action Comics #1
until the late 1940s. Along with the solo adventures of superpowered characters, the early Golden Age superhero comic books soon introduced the concept of the superhero team in the form of the Justice Society of America. This team, which first appeared in
All-Star Comics #3
from 1940, initially featured eight white male heroes: Doctor Fate, Hour-Man, the Spectre, the Sandman, Atom, the Flash, Green Lantern, and Hawkman. The membership of the Justice Society changed as new heroes were introduced. Also, readers were informed that if any characters had their own comic books, they could only serve as honorary members of the Justice Society and no longer were regularly featured in
All-Star Comics
.
1
The superhero genre was extremely popular during World War II, but in the years following the war publishers found more success with crime, horror, and romance comics, and most superhero comic books stopped publication.
The superhero team was also key in launching the Silver Age, as DC Comics’
The Justice League
was one of the successful superhero comic books that is rumored to have inspired Marvel Comics to return to superhero publishing. Stan Lee was the editor in chief of Marvel Comics at the time, as well as a writer of many of the comic books produced. Lee has said that when Marvel’s publisher, Martin Goodman, saw that DC Comics was having success revisiting the superhero genre, the publisher insisted that Marvel begin publishing its own superhero comic books again (Duncan 45–46). In the World War II heyday of the superhero, the company that would become Marvel Comics
2
had its own superhero line, which included characters such as Captain America, Namor, the Sub-Mariner, and the Human Torch. But following the end of the war and the subsequent loss of interest in superheroes from consumers, Marvel had switched to publishing romance, monster, and sci-fi comic books.
Goodman’s request came just as Lee was considering quitting his job. Lee explains that:
I felt we were writing nonsense. Martin always felt that the books were only read by young kids or adults that weren’t that intelligent. So he didn’t like me to use words of more than two syllables in the dialogue, he didn’t want continued stories because the readers wouldn’t have brains enough to remember from month to month and things like that. I felt I was writing trash. (
Stan Lee’s Mutants
)
Lee’s wife suggested that if he wanted to write comic books for more mature readers and his publisher wanted new superhero comic books, why not combine the two. Lee worked with Jack Kirby, a talented and extremely proficient comic book artist, to create
The Fantastic Four
, and the Marvel age of superheroes began. The creative collaborations between Lee and Kirby would go on to reshape American popular culture.
Marvel began its superhero revolution in 1961
3
with the publication of
Fantastic Four #1
(Nov. 1961), written by Stan Lee with art by Jack Kirby. Lee and Kirby would collaborate on 102 consecutive issues of
The Fantastic Four
, which stood as an industry record for writer-artist collaboration until Brian Michael Bendis and Mark Bagley collaborated on 111 issues of
Ultimate Spider-Man
between 2000 and 2007. Lee and Kirby also collaborated to create
The Incredible Hulk #1
(May 1962) six months later. Lee collaborated with Steve Ditko to create Spider-Man, who first appeared in
Amazing Fantasy #15
(Aug. 1962). Lee and Kirby again collaborated to introduce the Mighty Thor into the Marvel universe in
Journey into Mystery #83
(Aug. 1962). Lee and Kirby created a scientist named Henry Pym in
Tales to Astonish #27
(Jan. 1962), and later that year they gave him a superhero persona as the Astonishing Ant-Man in
Tales to Astonish #35
(Sept. 1962). Lee worked with his brother Larry Lieber and artist Don Heck to create Iron Man in
Tales of Suspense #39
(Mar. 1963)
and with Kirby on the war comic
Sgt. Fury and His Howling Commandos #1
(May 1963). Lee and Kirby also collaborated on
The Avengers #1
(Sept. 1963)
and
The X-Men #1
(Sept. 1963).
Why Lee invented what became known as “the Marvel method” of writing is understandable. This method involved the writer providing the artist with a plot outline rather than a full script describing each panel of a page. The artist was then free to tell the story how he or she saw fit, and the writer would then write the dialogue for the finished art pages. This method limited how much time Lee had to devote to writing out detailed scripts. The number of comics he wrote each month was incredible. Even if he only provided general outlines and then scripted the finished pages, Lee was still responsible for a very large output from Marvel. But, even more impressively, it is staggering how much art Kirby produced in this era. Today many artists struggle to draw twelve twenty-two-page issues in a year consistently. Kirby was the primary artist on the majority of Marvel’s superhero comic books in Marvel’s early transition into that genre.
Comic books are an extremely collaborative medium to work in. Any single issue of a comic book is likely to have a writer, artist (or penciler), inker, colorist, and editor. The significance of these roles may vary greatly from comic to comic. For example, the writer may provide a detailed script that tells the artist how many panels are on the page, what the writer envisions in each panel, and the dialogue that will be spoken. Or, in “the Marvel method” the writer is responsible for a general plot outline and final dialogue, whereas the artist is responsible for much of the narrative storytelling. The inker will take the artist’s penciled pages and use black ink to draw over the pencils every black line that is used by the printer in the final published product. The inker is sometimes referred to as the finisher or the embellisher, because he or she will sometimes take fairly rough pencils and create detailed images out of them. The colorist adds all of the color to the images for publication. The role of the editor will vary greatly depending on if the comic is a corporately owned product, such as the Marvel superheroes, or if the product is owned by the creators. If the comic books are corporately owned, the editors are also caretakers of the characters’ identities and more likely to become involved if they feel a creator’s work might tarnish the company’s intellectual property.
Because of all the roles necessary in creating a comic and the somewhat elastic nature of each job, it is at times problematic to assign credit for the various aspects of the final product.
4
This difficulty is especially true of Marvel comic books of the 1960s and 1970s, when the Marvel method of comic book writing was used extensively. This method was pioneered by Stan Lee and used most often with artists Steve Ditko and Jack Kirby. Comic book historian Mark Evanier explains that this “new means of collaboration . . . was born of necessity—Stan was overburdened with work—and to make use of Jack’s great skill with storylines. [. . .] Sometimes Stan would type up a written plot outline for the artist. Sometimes not” (112). Lee’s plot may have been a detailed write up or it may have been a vague description given in a conversation. The artist would then draw the story, but sometimes the artist would add as much or more to the plot than Lee had, and Lee would add dialogue to the finished product. In the 1970s artists were sometimes given credit as “co-plotters” when the Marvel method was used. The question of credit over who is the creator of a character or the plotter of a story has led to numerous professional feuds in the comic book industry.
Marvel’s most iconic titles had different themes that helped differentiate them from one another. The Fantastic Four had a family dynamic, the Hulk dealt with issues of rage, Spider-Man comic books were filled with adolescent angst, and the X-Men
comic books would become identified with themes of prejudice and fear. Many superheroes received their powers due to scientific experiments, radioactive accidents, mystical objects, or alien encounters. In the narrative universe of Marvel Comics, mutants are individuals who were been born with a genetic variation that manifests in the form of a superpower. Because mutants are born different, they face prejudice from normal humans.
The themes of prejudice, social “others,” and seeking to belong permeate the X-Men comic books. It is not uncommon for superheroes or teams to have a phrase that defines them. Superman fights for “truth, justice, and the American way.” Spider-Man knows that “with great power comes great responsibility.” The X-Men “fight to protect a world that hates and fears them.”
Many comic book creators who have worked on the X-Men have acknowledged that they purposefully used the concept of “mutants” to explore how society treats “others,” be they racial, ethnic, religious, or sexual. Mike Carey, who wrote
X-Men: Legacy
, calls the idea of mutants an “informing metaphor” for the series. Carey positions the mutant metaphor as analogous to real-world issues:
Readers coming to the series recognize the echoes of real-world prejudice—racism, homophobia and so on—and that in turn makes the series seem just that little bit more grounded in reality, despite the fact that it’s essentially sci-fi. The difference between mutants and other heroes is that mutants are identifiably a human sub-species, marked by their possession of the X-gene. This provides a narrative rationale both for their solidarity and for the attacks made on them by groups and individuals with an agenda based on the psychology and politics of race hatred. (Carey)