Authors: Benjamin Ginsberg
24
. “Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act Court Orders 1979â2012,” Electronic Privacy Information Center,
http://epic.org/privacy/wiretap/stats/fisa_stats.html
.
25
. Bamford, “They Know Much More,” 4.
26
. Ibid.
27
. Siobhan Gorman and Jennifer Valentino DeVries, “HSA Reaches Deep into US to Spy on Net: Fresh Details Show Programs Cover 75% of Nation's Traffic, Can Snare Emails,”
Wall Street Journal
, August 21, 2013, A8.
28
. Ellen Nakashima, “NSA Collected Thousands of Domestic E-mails,”
Washington Post
, August 22, 2013, 1.
29
. Barton Gellman, “Audit: NSA Repeatedly Broke Privacy Rules,”
Washington Post
, August 16, 2013, 1.
30
. Carol D. Leonnig, “Surveillance Judge Says Court Relies on Government to Report Its Own Actions,”
Washington Post
August 16, 2013, 1.
31
. James Madison,
The Federalist
, No. 51.
32
. Bamford, “They Know Much More,” 6.
33
. New York Times v. United States, 403 US (1971).
34
. Gabriel Schoenfeld, “Black-Letter Law,” in
Necessary Secrets: National Security, The Media and the Rule of Law
(New York: Norton, 2010).
35
. Kenneth Jost, “Government Secrecy,”
CQResearcher
, December 2, 2005, 1009.
36
. Harold C. Relyea, “Government Secrecy: Policy Depths and Dimensions,”
Government Information Quarterly
20 (2003): 395â418.
37
. 11 Stat. 60 (1857).
38
. Relyea,
Government Secrecy
, 397.
39
. Ibid., 398.
40
. Ibid., 400.
41
. “2011 Secrecy Report,”
OpenTheGovernment.org
, 2012.
42
. National Archives and Records Administration, “Bi-annual Report on Operations of the National Declassification Center. Reporting Period: July 1, 2012âDecember 31, 2012,”
http://www.archives.gov/declassification/ndc/reports/2012-biannual-july-december.pdf
.
43
. Nate Jones, “Declassification-as-Usual Mindset Responsible for the National Declassification Center's Languid Pace,” National Security Archive, February 1, 2012,
http://nsarchive.wordpress.com/2012/02/01/declassification-as-usual-mindset-responsible-for-the-national-declassifcation-centers-lanugid-pace/
.
44
. Matthew M. Aid, “Declassification in Reverse: The US Intelligence Community's Secret Historical Document Reclassification Program,” National Security Archive, February 21, 2006,
http://www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB179/
.
45
. Schoenfeld,
Necessary Secrets
, 175.
46
. Ibid., 185.
47
. Peter Walker, “Bradley Manning Trial: What We Know from the Leaked WikiLeaks Documents,”
Guardian
, July 30, 2013,
http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jul/30/bradley-manning-wikileaks-revelations
.
48
. Greg Mitchell, “A Long List of What We Know Thanks to Private Manning,”
Nation
, August 23, 2013,
http://www.thenation.com/blog/175879/long-list-what-we-know-thanks-private-manning#axzz2cvltDsQm
.
49
. Aid, “Declassification in Reverse.”
50
. Kate Martin, “Congressional Access to Classified National Security Information,”
Center for National Security Studies
, March 2007.
51
. Dan Nosowitz, “Congress Was Not Really Briefed on PRISM,”
Popular Science
, June 12, 2013,
http://www.popsci.com/technology/article/2013-06/obama-said-all-congress-was-briefed-prism-nonsense
.
52
. Ryan Devereaux, “Is Obama's Use of State Secrets Privilege the New Normal?”
Nation
, September, 2010,
http://www.thenation.com/article/155080/obamas-use-state-secrets-privilege-new-normal#axzz2cWH5ZitX
.
53
. Archibald Cox, “Executive Privilege,”
University of Pennsylvania Law Review
122 (1974): 1383.
54
. Raoul Berger,
Executive Privilege
(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1974).
55
. US v. Burr, 25 F. Cas. 187 (1807).
56
. Jeffrey P. Carlin, “Walker v. Cheney: Politics, Posturing and Executive Privilege,”
Southern California Law Review
76, no. 235 (November 2002): 245.
57
. 433 US 425 (1977).
58
. The appeals court, however, developed a procedure that gave the subcommittee limited access to documents under court supervision. 551 F.2nd 384 (DC Cir. 1976).
59
. 556 F. Supp. 150 (DDC 1983). As in the AT&T case, the court developed a procedure providing limited access to the contested documents.
60
. See, for example, Bareford v. General Dynamics Corp., 973 F.2nd 1138 (5th Cir. 1992).
61
. See,
In re Sealed Case
, 121 F.3rd 729 (D.C. Cir. 1997).
62
. 124 S.Ct.1391 (2004).
63
. Relyea, “Government Secrecy,” 402.
64
. Dana Milbank, “The Price of Whistleblowing,”
Washington Post
, August 21, 2013, A17.
65
. Christopher C. Horner,
The Liberal War on Transparency: Confessions of a Freedom of Information Criminal
(New York: Threshold Editions, 2012).
66
. “US Secret Service Agents' Alleged Scandals since 2004 Revealed,”
Guardian
, June 15, 2012,
http://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/jun/15/us-secret-service-scandals-revealed
.
67
. Jost, “Government Secrecy,” 1011.
68
.
Bloomberg News
, “Testing Obama's Promise of Government Transparency,” September 27, 2012,
http://go.bloomberg.com/multimedia/bloomberg-checks-obama-transparency/
.
CONCLUSION
1
. Thomas Hobbes,
Leviathan
, ed. Ian Shapiro (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2010).
2
. Immanuel Kant, “Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch,”
http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm
.
3
. Joshua S. Goldstein,
Winning the War on War
(New York: Penguin, 2012).
4
. Bruce Russett,
Grasping the Democratic Peace
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994).
5
. Thomas Hobbes,
Leviathan
, ed. Michael Oakeshott (New York: Collier, 1962), 132.
6
. Charles D. Tarleton, “The Despotical Doctrine of Hobbes, Part II: Aspects of the Textual Substructure of Tyranny in Leviathan,”
History of Political Thought
23, no.1 (Spring 2002): 82.
7
. Hobbes,
Leviathan
, 141.
8
. James Lee Ray: “Wars between Democracies: Rare, or Nonexistent?”
International Interactions
18, no. 3 (February 1993). Also, Joanne Gowa,
Ballots and Bullets: The Elusive Democratic Peace
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999), and Sebastian Rosato, “The Flawed Logic of Democratic Peace Theory,”
American Political Science Review
97 (2003): 585â602.
9
. Charles Tilly, “War Making and State Making as Organized Crime,” in
Bringing the State Back In
, ed. Peter Evans, Dietrich Rueschmeyer, and Theda Skocpol (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1985), 169â86.
10
. Geoffrey Perret,
A Country Made by War
(New York: Vintage, 1990).
11
. Tom Brokaw,
The Greatest Generation
(New York: Random House, 2004).
12
. Robert MacKay,
Half the Battle: Civilian Morale in Britain during the Second World War
(Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2002), 248.
13
. Jonathan Simon,
Governing through Crime: How the War on Crime Transformed American Democracy and Created a Culture of Fear
(New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 106â10.
14
. John S. Baker, “Jurisdictional and Separation of Powers Strategies to Limit the Expansion of Federal Crimes,”
American University Law Review
54 (February 2005): 548.
15
. Sara Sun Beale, “From Morals and Mattress Tags to Overfederalization,”
American University Law Review
54 (February 2005): 747.
16
. US v. Hanousek, 176 F. 3rd 116 (9th Cir. 1999).
17
. Morisette v. US, 342 US 246 (1952).
18
. John Hasnas, “Ethics and the Problem of White Collar Crime” (February 2005): 606.
19
. Memorandum by Larry Thompson, Deputy Attorney General, to Heads of Departments and US Attorneys, available at
http://www.usdoj.gov/dag/cftf/corporate_guidelines.htm
.
20
. “The McNulty Memorandum,”
Wall Street Journal
, December 13, 2006, A18.
21
. Eric Luna, “The Overcriminalization Phenomenon,”
American University Law Review
54 (February 2005).
Aaron of Lincoln,
51
Abbott and Costello (comedy team),
113
abolitionists,
149
Academic Assistance Council,
31
Academie Royale des Sciences,
44
Adams, Samuel,
107
Administrative Office of the US Courts (US),
55
Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) (US),
89
Afghanistan War,
43
,
49
,
144
,
155
,
167
,
198
â
99
,
216
Air Corps Act of 1926 (US),
157
Air Ministry (British),
90
Alamo,
215
Alexander, Keith,
188
Alexander Nevsky
(film),
120
Alexander the Great,
46
,
50
,
70
,
73
Amendments Act of 2008 (US),
188
American Civil War,
47
,
80
,
94
,
99
â
100
,
102
â
103
,
127
,
138
â
40
,
147
,
149
,
150
,
151
â
52
,
156
,
167
,
194
“American Crisis” (Paine),
107
American Expeditionary Forces (AEF),
48
American Farm Bureau Federation,
147
Andrew (prince of United Kingdom),
198
Andrews Sisters,
117
Anglo-Dutch wars,
130
Angola, private US contractors in,
166
Anne (queen of England),
130
Anti-Jacobin
(publication),
109
Antiochus III (Seleucid emperor),
70
Any Bonds Today?
(Berlin),
117
â
18
Apollodorus of Damascus,
72
Army (Russian/Soviet),
12
,
20
,
77
,
82
,
121
Army (US),
42
,
59
,
88
,
183
,
192
,
194
,
195
,
198
Army Air Corps (US),
157
Army Industrial College (AIC),
48
ARPANET,
89
Art of War, The
(Sun Tzu),
36
“Aryan Science” and Nazi racial ideology,
25
,
27
,
28
â
32
,
211
Ashcroft, John,
207
Atahuallpa (Incan emperor),
22
,
62
Athens (ancient),
9
,
33
,
34
,
71
,
75
,
105
,
173
,
208
atomic bomb.
See
nuclear weapons
Atomic Energy Act of 1946 (US),
194
audit of war,
15
,
16
,
19
â
24
,
27
,
32
,
211
Auftragstaktic
[mission-oriented command],
39
Austro-Prussian War,
137
banking development,
131
â
33
,
135
â
37
,
142
,
145
Bank of France,
135
Banque Royale (in France),
135
Bates, John D.,
189
Battle of the Somme, The
(film),
110
“Battle Stations for All” (pamphlet by OWI),
115
“Bay of Pigs” invasion of Cuba in 1961,
162
,
208
Beachy Head, Battle of (1690),
131
Beckley, Michael,
142
Benny, Jack,
115
Bergman, Ingrid,
114
“Beyond Vietnam” (King),
15
bin Laden, Osama,
50
Black Chamber (US),
171
â
72
,
175
,
184
Black Panther Party,
180
Blackwater USA,
165
BLARNEY (NSA surveillance program),
189
Bloch, Felix,
31
Bloch, Konrad,
31
Bloomberg News
,
207
Bogart, Humphrey,
114
Bolton, Joshua,
205
bonds as source of funds.
See
funding for wars
Border Patrol (US),
204
Bosnia, private US contractors in,
166
Boston Gazette
(newspaper),
107
Boston Massacre,
107
Bosworth Field, Battle of (1485),
50
Brazil,
85
Brennan, William J., Jr.,
175
Britain.
See
Great Britain
Britain, Battle of (1940),
90
,
103
Britain Prepared
(film),
110
British Gloster Meteor (jet fighter),
88
“British War Song,” 109
Brokaw, Tom,
216
Brookings Institution,
55
Brun of London,
51
brutality of governments, war mitigating,
93
â
128
,
169
Brzezinski, Zbigniew,
159
Buchanan, James,
151
Buck Private
(film),
113
Budget and Impoundment Control Act (US),
154
Bulletin
(newspaper),
108
Bundy, McGeorge,
159
having military roots,
15
,
49
,
51
wartime agencies blending into civilian bureaucracies,
147
,
155
,
169
Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives (ATF) (US),
204
,
205
Bureau of Investigation.
See
Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) (US)
Burger, Warren,
178
Burgh, Hubert de,
53
Burr, Aaron,
201
Bush, George W., and his administration,
122
,
155
,
164
,
187
â
88
,
196
,
202
â
203
,
205
,
207
Butler Education Act of 1944 (Britain),
125
Cajamarca, Battle of (1532),
62
â
63
Cambodia,
93
Canada,
36
,
95
,
97
,
102
,
126
,
133
,
148
,
183
Cannae, battle at (216 BCE),
70
Carefree
(film),
117
Carlton, Newcomb,
172
Carter, Jimmy, and his administration,
159
Catholic Church,
18
â
19
,
104
,
106
Caught in the Draft
(film),
113
censorship,
106
,
109
,
112
,
191
,
192
Center for Naval Warfare Studies,
55
Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (US),
55
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) (US),
156
,
161
â
62
,
168
,
181
â
84
,
191
,
196
,
199
Centre for Strategic Research and Analysis (Britain),
55
Chain, Ernst,
31
Chambers, Whittaker,
179
CHAOS, Operation (CIA surveillance program),
182
,
185
Charles II (king of England),
130
Cheney, Richard “Dick,”
203
,
208
Cheng Ho,
61
China
Chinese empire (221 BCEâ1911),
9
,
35
,
43
,
45
,
61
,
64
,
130
People's Re/files/09/35/18/f093518/public/Communist China (1949âpresent),
79
,
85
â
87
,
93
,
142
Warring States period (476â221 BCE),
33
,
58
,
59
,
72
Christians, George W.,
171
Church, Frank,
185
Church Committee.
See
Congress (US)
Churchill, Marlborough,
172
Cipher Bureau.
See
Black Chamber (US)
Citizens' Commission to Investigate the FBI,
181
citizen soldiers,
40
,
96
â
98
,
106
â
107
,
147
,
148
,
149
,
153
,
163
â
64
,
216
â
17
move to professional military in the United States,
40
,
163
â
68
war creating citizens,
95
â
96
,
127
â
28
Civil Air Patrol,
216
civil-military technology transfers,
60
,
89
â
91
classification schemes and secrecy,
192
â
93
,
194
â
96
“Claw of Archimedes,”
73
â
74
,
75
Clean Water Act (CWA) (US),
219
,
220
Clinton, Bill, and his administration,
166
,
196
Coast Guard (US),
216
Colfax, Schuyler,
152
Collins, Randall,
41
Collins, Susan,
201
Columbia,
166
command and leadership in warfare,
49
â
50
Commerce Department (US),
170
Committee on Public Information (CPI) (US),
110
â
11
,
170
Committee on Public Instruction (later called Committee on Public Safety) (France),
107
“Common Sense” (Paine),
107
Commonwealth Wars,
130
anti-Communist activities in the United States,
153
,
162
,
170
,
171
,
179
,
181
,
182
Communist International,
106
“Communist Internationale” (Soviet anthem),
120
Comptoir (banking house in France),
136
Confessions of a Nazi Spy
(film),
113
Congregatio de Propaganda Fide
[Congregation for Propagating the Faith],
104