5 Steps to a 5 AP Psychology, 2010-2011 Edition (46 page)

Avoidance-avoidance conflicts
—situations involving two negative options, one of which we must choose.

Approach-avoidance conflicts
—situations involving whether or not to choose an option that has both a positive and negative consequence or consequences.

Multiple approach–avoidance conflicts
—situations involving several alternative courses of action that have both positive and negative aspects.

Emotions
are psychological feelings that involve physiological arousal (biological component), conscious experience (cognitive component), and overt behavior (behavioral component). Physiological arousal involves stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system and hormonal secretion. The limbic system is the center for emotions; the amygdala influences aggression and fear, and interacts with the hypothalamus. Basic emotions such as joy, fear, anger, sadness, surprise, and disgust are inborn.
Cross-cultural studies
support the universal recognition of at least six basic emotions based on facial expressions. Different cultures have different rules for showing emotions. No one theory accounts completely for emotions.

Evolutionary theory
—emotions developed because of their
adaptive
value, allowing the organism to avoid danger and survive. We often know how we feel before we know what we think.

James-Lange theory
—conscious experience of emotion results from one’s awareness of autonomic arousal.

Cannon-Bard theory
—the thalamus sends information to the limbic system and cerebral cortex simultaneously so that conscious experience of emotion accompanies physiological processes.

Opponent-process theory
—following a strong emotion, an opposing emotion counters the first emotion, lessening the experience of that emotion. On repeated occasions, the opposing emotion becomes stronger.

Schachter-Singer two-factor theory
—we determine an emotion from our physiological arousal, then label that emotion according to our cognitive explanation for the arousal.

Cognitive-appraisal theory
—our emotional experience depends on our interpretation of the situation we are in.

Health psychology
looks at relationship between psychological behavior—thoughts, feelings, and actions—and physical health.

Stress
—both psychological and physiologic reactions to stressors; situations, events, or stimuli that produce uncomfortable feelings or anxiety.

Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome
—three-stage process describes our body’s reaction to stress:

1. Alarm reaction
—stressor triggers increased activity of the sympathetic nervous system.

2. Resistance
—raised temperature, heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration maintained; levels of adrenalin and corticosteroids rise.

3. Exhaustion stage
—immune system is weakened, increased susceptibility to ulcers, depression, death.

Stressful life events
include:

•
Catastrophes
—unpredictable, large-scale disasters that threaten us.

•
Significant life events
—stressful changes in our lives such as death of a loved one, marriage, starting college, etc.
Holmes and Rahe’s Social Readjustment Rating Scale
rates stressful events in our lives. The greater the number and intensity of life-changing events, the greater is the chance of developing physical illness or disease in the following year.

•
Daily hassles
—everyday annoyances that together can raise our blood pressure, cause headaches, lower our immunity.

Type A personalities with traits of anger, hostility, and cynicism are more likely to have heart attacks than Type B personalities.

Type A personalities
—high achievers, competitive, impatient, multi-taskers, who walk, talk, and eat quickly.

Type B personalities
—relaxed and calm in their approach to life.

Coping strategies
are active efforts to reduce or tolerate perceived levels of stress.

Maladaptive coping strategies include aggression; indulging ourselves by eating, drinking, smoking, using drugs, spending money, or sleeping too much; or using
defense mechanisms
. (See
Chapter 14
for defense mechanisms.)

Adaptive coping strategies include taking direct action through problem solving, exercising, seeking the social support of friends, finding help through religious organizations and prayer, and accepting the problem. Relaxation, visualization, meditation, and biofeedback can help lessen the effects of stress in our lives and boost our immune systems.

Positive psychology
is the scientific study of optimal human functioning.

IN THIS CHAPTER

Summary:
From the womb to the tomb, developmental psychologists are interested in how we grow up and how we grow old.
Developmental psychology
is the study of physical, intellectual, social, and moral changes across the life span from conception to death. Developmental psychologists attempt to describe, explain, and predict age-related behaviors.

In this chapter we look at theories proposed by developmental psychologists in each of the four broad topic areas across the periods of infancy, childhood, adolescence, and adulthood.

Key Ideas

Nature vs. Nurture

Continuity vs. Discontinuity

Stability vs. Change

Research designs—longitudinal, cross-sectional, cohort-sequential, retrospective

Physical development

Cognitive development

Moral development

Social development