A Short History of Chinese Philosophy (51 page)

nature, and he considers the presumed distinction between nature and mind as nothing more than a verbal one. Regarding such verbal distinctions, he says: Scholars of today devote most of their time to the explanation of words. For instance, such words as feeling, nature, mind, and ability all mean one and the same thing. It is only accidental that a single enlity is denoted by different terms." (Collected Works, chilan 35.)

Yet as we have seen in the last chapter, Chu Hsi's distinction between nature and mind is certainly far from a verbal one, for from his point of view, there actually exists such a distinction in reality. This reality as seen by him, however, is not the same as that seen by Lu Chiu— yuan. For the former, reality consists of two worlds, the one abstract, the other concrete. For the latter, however, it consists of only one world, which is the mind or Mind.

But the sayings of Lu Chiu—yuan give us only a sketchy indication of what the world system of the Mind school is. For a more complete exposition, we must turn to the sayings and writings of Wang Shou-jen.

Wang Shou-Jen s Conception of the Universe

Wang Shou—jen (l$J2.-lz>2.'&) was a native of the present Chekiang province, and is generally known as the Master of Yang— ming. He was not only an outstanding philosopher, but was also notable as a practical statesman of high capacity and moral integrity. In his early years he was an ardent follower of the Ch eng-Chu school; and, determined to carry out Chu Hsi s teaching, once started to investigate the principle or Li of bamboo. He concentrated his mind upon the bamboo day and night for seven consecutive days, yet failed to discover anything. Finally he was forced to give up the attempt in great despair. Afterward, however, while living amid primitive surroundings in the mountains of southwest China, to which he had been temporarily exiled because of political intrigue at court, enlightenment came to him suddenly one night. As a result, he gained a new understanding of the central idea oi the Greiil Learning, and from this viewpoint reinterpreted this work. In this way he completed and systematized the teaching of the Mind school.

In the Ch uan Hsi Lu or Record of Instructions, which is a selection of Wang Shou-jen s recorded sayings made by one of his disciples, one passage reads: "While the Master was taking recreation at Nan-chen, one of our friends, pointing at the flowers anil trees on a cliff, said: You say there is nothing under heaven that is external to the mind. What relation, then, do these high mountain flowers and trees, which blossom and drop of themselves, have tomy mind?' The Master replied: 'When you do not see these flowers, they and your mind both become quiescent. When you see them, their color at once becomes clear. From this fact you know that these flowers are not external lo your mind.'" (Pt. 3.) Another passage reads: 'The Muster asked: According to you, what is the mind of Heaven and Earth?'

The disciple answered: 'I have often heard that

5O6 NEO-CONFUCIANISM:THE SCHOOL OF UNIVERSAL MIND

man is the mind of Heaven and Earth. And what is it in man that is called his mind?' ' It is simply the spirituality or consciousness.' ' From this we know that in Heaven and Earth there is one spirituality or consciousness. But because of his bodily form, man has separated himself from the whole. My spirituality or consciousness is the ruler of Heaven and Earth, spirits and things.... If Heaven,Earth, spirits, and things are separated from my spirituality or consciousness, they cease to be.

And if my spirituality or consciousness is separated from them, it ceases to be also. Thus they are all actually one body, so how can they be separated?'" (Pt. 3.)

From these sayings we gain an idea of Wang Shou—jen s conception of the universe. In this conception, the universe is a spiritual whole, in which there is only one world, the concrete actual world that we ourselves experience. Thus there is no place for that other world of abstract Li, which Chu Hsi so much emphasized.

Wang Shou-jen also maintains that mind is Li: "Mind is Li. How can there be affairs and Li outside the mind?" (Record of Instructions, pt . I.) Again:"The substance of the mind is the nature and the nature is Li. Therefore, since there is the mind of filial love, hence there is the Li of filial piety. If there were no such a mind,there would be no such a Li. And since there is the mind of loyalty to the sovereign, hence there is the Li of loyalty. If there were no such a mind, there would be no such a Li. How can Li be outside our mind?" (Ibid., pt. 1.) From these sayings we can see still more clearly the difference between Chu Hsi and Wang Shou—jen and between the two schools they represent. According to Chu Hsi's system, we can only say that since there is the Li of filial piety, therefore there is the mind of loving one's parents; and since there is the Li of loyalty, therefore there is the mind of loyalty to one s sovereign. We cannot, however, say the converse. But what Wang Shou-jen said is precisely this converse. According to Chu Hsi's system, all the Li are eternally there, no matter whether there is mind or not. But according to Wang Shou—jen s system, if there is no mind, there will be no Li. Thus the mind is the legislator of the universe and is that by which the Li are legislated.

"The Illustrious Virtue"

With this conception of the universe, Wang Shou-jen gives a metaphysical justification to the Great Learning. As we have seen in chapter sixteen, this work speaks of what are later called the three major cords and eight minor wires." The three ' cords are "to manifest the illustrious virtue, love people, and rest in the highest good." Wang Shou-jen defines great learning as the learning of the great man.

Regarding the 'manifestation of the illustrious virtue, he writes: The great man is an all—pervading unity, which is one with Heaven, Earth, and all things. He considers the world as one family, and the Middle Kingdom as one man. Those who emphasize the distinction of bodily 508 NEO-CONFUCIANrSM:THE SCHOOL OF UNIVERSAL MIND

forms and thus make cleavage between the self and others are the small men. The reason that the great man is able to be one with Heaven, Earth, and all things, is not that he is thus for some purpose, but because the humanheart-edness of his mind is naturally so. The mind of the small man is exactly the same, only he himself makes it small. When the small man sees a child about to fall into a well, he will certainly experience a feeling of alarm and distress. This shows that in his love he is one with the child.

And when he hears the pitiful cry or sees the frightened appearance of a bird or beast, he will certainly find it unbearable to witness them. This shows that in his love he is one with birds and beasts.. . . From all this it may be seen that the original unity lies in the small man [as well as the great man]. Even the small man has his heavenly nature, the light of which cannot be obscured. Therefore it is called the illustrious virtue .... Thus when there is no obscuring caused by selfish desires, even the small man has the love for the whole, just as does the great man. But when there is this obscuring, even the mind of the great man is divided and hampered, just as is the small man. The learning of the great man serves simply to clear away the obscuring and thus to manifesi the illustrious virtue, so as thus to restore the original unity ol Heaven, Earth, and all things. It is not possible to add anything to this original state. *

Regarding the second of the "three cords" in the Great Learning, that of "loving people," Wang Shou-jen writes: "To manifest the illustrious virtue is to establish the nature of the unity of Heaven, Earth, and all things; to love people is to exercise the function of that unity. Therefore the manifestation of the illustrious virtue consists in loving people, and to love people is to manifest the illustrious virtue.

If I love my own father, the fathers of some other men, and the falhers of all men, my love will be truly extended with my love of these fathers.... Beginning with all these human relationships, and reaching to mountains, rivers, spirits and gods, birds and beasts, grasses and trees, all should be loved in order to extend our love. In this way there is nothing that is not manifested in our illustrious virtue; and then we are really one with Heaven, Earth and all things." (Ibid.)

Regarding the third "cord, that of ' resting in the highest good, he writes: "The highest good is the highest standard for the manifesting of the illustrious virtue and loving people. Our original nature is purely good. What cannot be obscured in it is the manifestation of the highest good and of the nature of the illustrious virtue, and is also what I call intuitive knowledge. When things come to it, right is right, wrong is wrong, important is important, and inferior is inferior. It responds to ihings and changes with circumstances, yet it always attains the natural mean. This is the highest standard for the actions of man and of things, to which nothing can be added, and from which nothing can be reduced. If there is any addition or reduction,

* Ta llsiieh Wen or Questions on the Greal Leuraing in the Wang Wen-ch eng kung Ch ikin-shu or Complete Works of Wang Shou-jen, ihikm 3.6.

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..

that is selfishness and a petty kind of rationalization, and is not the highest good." (Ibid.)

Intuitive Knowledge

Thus the three "main cords" are reduced to a single "cord," that of the manifestation of the illustrious virtue, which is simply the original nature of our mind. All of us, whether good or bad, fundamentally have the same mind, which can never be wholly obscured by our selfishness, and always manifests itself in our immediate intuitive reaction to things. A case in point is the feeling of alarm which we all automatically experience upon suddenly seeing a child about to fall into a well. In our first reaction to things, we know naturally and spontaneously that the right is right and the wrong is wrong. This knowing is the manifestation of our original nature, and for it Wang uses the term "intuitive knowledge"

(literally, "good knowledge"). All we need to do is simply to follow the dictates of this knowledge and go unhesitatingly forward. For if we try to find excuses for not immediately following these dictates, we are then adding something to, or reducing something from, the intuitive knowledge, and are thus losing the highest good. The act of looking for excuses is a rationalization which is due to selfishness. As we have seen in chapters twenty-three and twenty-four, Chou Tun-yi and Ch' eng Hao expressed the same theory, but Wang Shou-jen here gives it a more metaphysical basis.

It is said that when Yang Chien (died 12.2.6) first met Lu Chiu-yiian, he asked the laater what our original mind is. It may be noted in passing that this term, "original mind," was originally a Ch anist one, but it also came to be used by the Neo-Confucianists of the Lu-Wang school. Answering the question, Lu Chiu-yiian recited the passage in the Mencius about the four beginnings." Yang Chien said that he had read this passage since boyhood, but still did not know of what the original mind consists.

He was then an official, and during the conversation was called upon to attend to some official business, in the course of which he had to pass a verdict on a certain lawsuit. When the business was concluded, he turned to Lu Chiu-yiian again with the same question. Lu then said: "Just now in announcing your verdict, the right you knew to be right, and the wrong you knew to be wrong. That is your original mind.

Yang said: Is there anything else? To which Lu in a very loud voice answered: "What else do you want?'

Thereupon Yang was suddenly enlightened and thus became the disciple of Lu. (Tz u-hu Yi-shu or Literary Remains of Yang Chien, chtian 18.)

Another story says that a follower of Wang Shou-jen once caught a thief in his house at night, whereupon he gave him a lecture about intuitive knowledge. The thief laughed and asked: Tell me, please, where is my intuitive knowledge?" At that time the weather was hot, so the thief's captor invited him first to take off his jacket, then his shirt, and then continued: It 512 NEO-CONFUCIANISM:TIIE SCHOOL OF UNIVERSAL MIND

is still too hot. Why not take off your trousers too? At this the thief hesitated and replied: "That does not seem to be quite right. Thereupon his captor shouted at him:"There is your intuitive knowledge!

The story does not say whether the thief gained enlightenment as a result of this conversation, but it and the preceding story certainly are typical of the Ch' an technique of initiating a student to Enlightenment. They show that every man possesses that intuitive knowledge which is the manifestation of his original mind, and through which he immediately knows that right is right and wrong is wrong.

Everyone, in his original nature, is a sage. That is why the followers of Wang Shou—jen were in the habit of saying that the streets are full of sages.'

What they meant by this is thai every man is potentially a sage. He can become an actual sage if he but follow the dictates of his intuitive knowledge and act accordingly. What he needs to do, in other words, is to carry his intuitive knowledge into practice, or, in Wang Shou-jen's terminology, to extend his intuitive knowledge. Thus the "extension of intuitive knowledge" became the key term in Wang's philosophy, and in his later years he mentioned only these words.

"The Rectification of Affairs"

It will be remembered that the Great Learning also speaks of eight minor wires," which are the eight steps to be followed in the spiritual cultivation of the self. The first two of them are the extension of knowledge and investigation of things." According to Wang Shou-jen, the extension of knowledge means the extension of the intuitive knowledge. Cultivation of the self is nothing more than the following of one s intuitive knowledge and putting it into practice.