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Authors: Angelo M. Codevilla
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9
“U.S. and Allied Efforts to Recover and Restore Gold and Other Assets Stolen or Hidden by Germany During World War II,” preliminary study coordinated by Stuart E. Eizenstat, Washington, D.C., U.S. Department of State, May 1997, p. iv.
“U.S. and Allied Efforts to Recover and Restore Gold and Other Assets Stolen or Hidden by Germany During World War II,” preliminary study coordinated by Stuart E. Eizenstat, Washington, D.C., U.S. Department of State, May 1997, p. iv.
12
See, for example, Peter T. White and Steve Raymer, “A Little Humanity: The International Committee of the Red Cross,”
National Geographic
, November 1986. See also William H. Nicholas and Willard Culver, “Switzerland Guards the Roof of Europe,”
National Geographic
, August 1950.
See, for example, Peter T. White and Steve Raymer, “A Little Humanity: The International Committee of the Red Cross,”
National Geographic
, November 1986. See also William H. Nicholas and Willard Culver, “Switzerland Guards the Roof of Europe,”
National Geographic
, August 1950.
13
Hearings before the U.S. Senate Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs, April 23, 1996.
Hearings before the U.S. Senate Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs, April 23, 1996.
14
Niccolò Machiavelli,
The Prince
, translated and edited by Angelo M. Codevilla (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997), pp. 46â47.
Niccolò Machiavelli,
The Prince
, translated and edited by Angelo M. Codevilla (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997), pp. 46â47.
15
See J. Murray Luck, ed.,
Modern Switzerland
(Palo Alto, CA: Society for the Promotion of Science and Scholarship, 1978). See also Rolf Kieser and Kurt R. Spillman, eds.,
The New Switzerland: Problems and Policies
(Palo Alto, CA: Society for the Promotion of Science and Scholarship, 1996).
See J. Murray Luck, ed.,
Modern Switzerland
(Palo Alto, CA: Society for the Promotion of Science and Scholarship, 1978). See also Rolf Kieser and Kurt R. Spillman, eds.,
The New Switzerland: Problems and Policies
(Palo Alto, CA: Society for the Promotion of Science and Scholarship, 1996).
16
Of the many tributes to Churchill's statesmanship, none is more instructive than the one delivered by Professor Leo Strauss on the occasion of Sir Winston's death. “The tyrant stood at the height of his power. None dared defy him.” Professor Strauss's point was that Churchill showed who he was in the summer of 1940 by defying Hitler when the
führer
was most powerful. Those who sport anti-Nazism a half century after Hitler's death are in a category different from Churchill's.
Of the many tributes to Churchill's statesmanship, none is more instructive than the one delivered by Professor Leo Strauss on the occasion of Sir Winston's death. “The tyrant stood at the height of his power. None dared defy him.” Professor Strauss's point was that Churchill showed who he was in the summer of 1940 by defying Hitler when the
führer
was most powerful. Those who sport anti-Nazism a half century after Hitler's death are in a category different from Churchill's.
17
One can get a hint of how the overwhelming majority of democratic statesmen would have behaved had Nazi victories continued from Robert Harris's novel
Fatherland
(New York: Random House, 1992).
One can get a hint of how the overwhelming majority of democratic statesmen would have behaved had Nazi victories continued from Robert Harris's novel
Fatherland
(New York: Random House, 1992).
19
David L. Gordon and Royden Dangerfield,
The Hidden Weapon: The Story of Economic Warfare
(New York: Harper, 1947), p. 75.
David L. Gordon and Royden Dangerfield,
The Hidden Weapon: The Story of Economic Warfare
(New York: Harper, 1947), p. 75.
22
See J. Fink,
Die Schweitz aus der Sicht des Dritten Reiches 1933â1945
(Zurich, 1985) and H.R. Kurz,
Operationsplannung Schweitz
(Thoune, 1974).
See J. Fink,
Die Schweitz aus der Sicht des Dritten Reiches 1933â1945
(Zurich, 1985) and H.R. Kurz,
Operationsplannung Schweitz
(Thoune, 1974).
24
Note the classic refutation of the vulgar notion that “money is the sinew of war” in Niccolò Machiavelli,
Discourses
, Book II, Chapter 10. In essence Machiavelli teaches that power makes money, not the other way around.
Chapter 2Note the classic refutation of the vulgar notion that “money is the sinew of war” in Niccolò Machiavelli,
Discourses
, Book II, Chapter 10. In essence Machiavelli teaches that power makes money, not the other way around.
1
Niccolò Machiavelli,
Discourses
, Book II, Ch. 27. Machiavelli illustrates the consequences of putting one's country wholly at the mercy of an aroused, victorious enemy. In particular, Machiavelli recalls the strategic error of the Florentine Republic in 1512. Even though the much superior Spanish army had offered Florence the chance to retain its republican form of government in exchange for concessions, Florence chose to fight, using the small army that Machiavelli himself had organized. Florence lost, the republic died, and Machiavelli spent the next six months in jail. His advice here is much like that of a good attorney: measure your case and then settle!
Niccolò Machiavelli,
Discourses
, Book II, Ch. 27. Machiavelli illustrates the consequences of putting one's country wholly at the mercy of an aroused, victorious enemy. In particular, Machiavelli recalls the strategic error of the Florentine Republic in 1512. Even though the much superior Spanish army had offered Florence the chance to retain its republican form of government in exchange for concessions, Florence chose to fight, using the small army that Machiavelli himself had organized. Florence lost, the republic died, and Machiavelli spent the next six months in jail. His advice here is much like that of a good attorney: measure your case and then settle!
4
See Edgar Bonjour,
Histoire de la Neutralité Suisse
, vols. IV, VI (Neuchatel, 1970); Daniel Bourgeois,
Le Troisième Reich et la Suisse
(Neuchatel, 1974); Jon Kimche,
Spying for Peace: General Guisan and Swiss Neutrality
(London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1961).
See Edgar Bonjour,
Histoire de la Neutralité Suisse
, vols. IV, VI (Neuchatel, 1970); Daniel Bourgeois,
Le Troisième Reich et la Suisse
(Neuchatel, 1974); Jon Kimche,
Spying for Peace: General Guisan and Swiss Neutrality
(London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1961).
5
General Henri Guisan,
Rapport du General Guisan à l'Assemblée Fédérale Sur le Service Actif 1939â1945
(Bern, 1946), p. 5.
General Henri Guisan,
Rapport du General Guisan à l'Assemblée Fédérale Sur le Service Actif 1939â1945
(Bern, 1946), p. 5.
8
Adriano Pennacini, ed.,
Cesare Opera Omnia
(Turin, Paris: Einaudi, Gallimard Pleiade, 1993);
De Bellum Galiae
, Book I, Ch. 1, p. 6.
Adriano Pennacini, ed.,
Cesare Opera Omnia
(Turin, Paris: Einaudi, Gallimard Pleiade, 1993);
De Bellum Galiae
, Book I, Ch. 1, p. 6.
9
Niccolò Machiavelli,
The Prince
, Angelo Codevilla, ed. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997), Ch. 26. In his larger work, the
Discourses
, Machiavelli qualified that praise considerably. His main military point in the
Discourses
is that no arm or mode of warfare is inherently superior to another, and that any set of means must be used according to circumstances. At any rate, in 1515 the Swiss suffered a serious defeat at the hands of the French at the Battle of Marignano. Thereafter, Swiss influence in European affairs declined. See George Soloveitchik,
Switzerland in Perspective
(London: Oxford University Press, 1954).
Niccolò Machiavelli,
The Prince
, Angelo Codevilla, ed. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997), Ch. 26. In his larger work, the
Discourses
, Machiavelli qualified that praise considerably. His main military point in the
Discourses
is that no arm or mode of warfare is inherently superior to another, and that any set of means must be used according to circumstances. At any rate, in 1515 the Swiss suffered a serious defeat at the hands of the French at the Battle of Marignano. Thereafter, Swiss influence in European affairs declined. See George Soloveitchik,
Switzerland in Perspective
(London: Oxford University Press, 1954).
11
Army Order 10067, June 3, 1940.
Army Order 10067, June 3, 1940.
13
W. Roesch,
Bedrohte Schweitz
(Frauenfeld, 1986); W. Roesch, “Plans d'Attaque Allemands Contre la Suisse du Second Semestre de 1940,”
Sup-primer l'Armée
(Frauenfeld, 1988), pp. 55â66.
W. Roesch,
Bedrohte Schweitz
(Frauenfeld, 1986); W. Roesch, “Plans d'Attaque Allemands Contre la Suisse du Second Semestre de 1940,”
Sup-primer l'Armée
(Frauenfeld, 1988), pp. 55â66.
14
On Termopylae, see Herodotus. On Demosthenes' brilliant tactics at Pylos, see Thucydides,
The Peloponnesian War
, Book V.
On Termopylae, see Herodotus. On Demosthenes' brilliant tactics at Pylos, see Thucydides,
The Peloponnesian War
, Book V.
16
Some modern Swiss writers (see, for example, Philippe Marguerat,
La Suisse Face au IIIème Reich
[Lausanne, Editions 24 Heures]) compare the Swiss decision to forsake defense for deterrence to the U.S. decision in the 1960s to leave America defenseless against nuclear weapons. They cite Thomas Schelling's
The Strategy of Conflict
(New Haven: Yale University Press, 1966) as the classic explanation of why maintaining peace depends on accepting unacceptable consequences for one's own side in case of war. But this line of argument confuses the Swiss predicament in World War II, when defense was impossible, with the U.S. situation of the 1960s, when officials rejected options for defense and chose vulnerability on purely ideological grounds.
Some modern Swiss writers (see, for example, Philippe Marguerat,
La Suisse Face au IIIème Reich
[Lausanne, Editions 24 Heures]) compare the Swiss decision to forsake defense for deterrence to the U.S. decision in the 1960s to leave America defenseless against nuclear weapons. They cite Thomas Schelling's
The Strategy of Conflict
(New Haven: Yale University Press, 1966) as the classic explanation of why maintaining peace depends on accepting unacceptable consequences for one's own side in case of war. But this line of argument confuses the Swiss predicament in World War II, when defense was impossible, with the U.S. situation of the 1960s, when officials rejected options for defense and chose vulnerability on purely ideological grounds.
17
Thucydides,
The Peloponnesian War
, Book II. Thucydides was a favorite of Colonel Max Gonard, one of General Guisan's favorite thinkers.
Thucydides,
The Peloponnesian War
, Book II. Thucydides was a favorite of Colonel Max Gonard, one of General Guisan's favorite thinkers.
19
The precise figures are found in Jakob Huber,
Rapport du Chef de l'Etat Major de l' Armée
(Bern, 1946), pp. 112â142.
The precise figures are found in Jakob Huber,
Rapport du Chef de l'Etat Major de l' Armée
(Bern, 1946), pp. 112â142.
22
Huber, 251â255.
Huber, 251â255.
24
Jost, 164.
Jost, 164.
25
Consider: “Treason doth never prosper; what's the reason? / For if it prosper, none dare call it treason” (Sir John Harrington, “Of Treason,”
Epigrams
).
Consider: “Treason doth never prosper; what's the reason? / For if it prosper, none dare call it treason” (Sir John Harrington, “Of Treason,”
Epigrams
).
26
See, for example, Machiavelli,
The Prince
, Ch. 17: “When need is far away [men] offer you their blood, their goods, their lives, their children; but when need closes in, they revolt.”
See, for example, Machiavelli,
The Prince
, Ch. 17: “When need is far away [men] offer you their blood, their goods, their lives, their children; but when need closes in, they revolt.”
27
The original sources on subversion in Switzerland during the war are the reports of the Federal Council of December 26, 1945 (FF1946, I, 1), the report of the Federal Council of May 17, 1946 (FF II, 165), and the report of the Federal Council of May 21, 1946 (FII 203). These are summarized in Albert Picot,
L'Activité Antidemocratique Contre la Suisse Pendant la Guerre
(National Council, October 9, 1946). The best historical summary of the fight for public opinion in Switzerland is Andre Lasserre,
La Suisse des Années Sombres
(Lausanne, 1989).
The original sources on subversion in Switzerland during the war are the reports of the Federal Council of December 26, 1945 (FF1946, I, 1), the report of the Federal Council of May 17, 1946 (FF II, 165), and the report of the Federal Council of May 21, 1946 (FII 203). These are summarized in Albert Picot,
L'Activité Antidemocratique Contre la Suisse Pendant la Guerre
(National Council, October 9, 1946). The best historical summary of the fight for public opinion in Switzerland is Andre Lasserre,
La Suisse des Années Sombres
(Lausanne, 1989).
28
The assassin, a young Jew named David Frankfurter, was released after the war and made a career in the Israeli Ministry of Defense.
The assassin, a young Jew named David Frankfurter, was released after the war and made a career in the Israeli Ministry of Defense.
29
By the same token, after listening to
Wehrmacht
General Franz Halder's description of how German armies had sliced through Poland, Swiss Army Chief of Staff Jakob Huber crushed his cheap cigar and remarked, “Here, nobody will pass.” Of course this brave tone vanished after June 1940.
By the same token, after listening to
Wehrmacht
General Franz Halder's description of how German armies had sliced through Poland, Swiss Army Chief of Staff Jakob Huber crushed his cheap cigar and remarked, “Here, nobody will pass.” Of course this brave tone vanished after June 1940.
30
This was revealed in a parliamentary inquest after the war. See M. André Picot,
Les Menées Hitleriennes
, Séance du Conseil National du 9 Octobre 1946, Bulletin Sténographique des Chambres Fédérales (Bern, 1946), p. 4.
This was revealed in a parliamentary inquest after the war. See M. André Picot,
Les Menées Hitleriennes
, Séance du Conseil National du 9 Octobre 1946, Bulletin Sténographique des Chambres Fédérales (Bern, 1946), p. 4.
32
See, for example, a speech he delivered in 1935: “They hate [the army] because it is the obstacle, the wall against which the Bolshevik wave of 1918 broke. Because to utopian dreams it opposes its fidelity, its solidarity, its spirit of brotherhood, and if necessary its force. Because of all the products of our soil it is the one with the deepest roots” (Lasserre, 36).
Chapter 3See, for example, a speech he delivered in 1935: “They hate [the army] because it is the obstacle, the wall against which the Bolshevik wave of 1918 broke. Because to utopian dreams it opposes its fidelity, its solidarity, its spirit of brotherhood, and if necessary its force. Because of all the products of our soil it is the one with the deepest roots” (Lasserre, 36).
1
This theme is fully developed in Paul Seabury and Angelo Codevilla,
War Ends and Means
(New York: Basic Books, 1989), Ch. 1.
This theme is fully developed in Paul Seabury and Angelo Codevilla,
War Ends and Means
(New York: Basic Books, 1989), Ch. 1.
2
Feuille Fédérale
, 1935, vol. II, p. 561. We translate correctly the phrase “under observation of the Federal Assembly and public opinion.” However,
in French, Italian, and German, the words for “observe” retain an etymological but practically vestigial implication of “control.” No. Public opinion and parliament retained only the right to look on, and applaud or complain.
Feuille Fédérale
, 1935, vol. II, p. 561. We translate correctly the phrase “under observation of the Federal Assembly and public opinion.” However,
in French, Italian, and German, the words for “observe” retain an etymological but practically vestigial implication of “control.” No. Public opinion and parliament retained only the right to look on, and applaud or complain.
8
Victor Klemperer,
I Will Bear Witness: A Diary of the Nazi Years 1942â1945
(New York: Random House, 2000).
Victor Klemperer,
I Will Bear Witness: A Diary of the Nazi Years 1942â1945
(New York: Random House, 2000).
10
The authoritative account of this key episode is in Karl Ludwig, “
La Politique Pratiquée par la Suisse à l'Egard des Réfugiés au Cours des Années 1933â1955
(Bern, 1957). See also Lasserre,
Frontières
, 167â168.
The authoritative account of this key episode is in Karl Ludwig, “
La Politique Pratiquée par la Suisse à l'Egard des Réfugiés au Cours des Années 1933â1955
(Bern, 1957). See also Lasserre,
Frontières
, 167â168.
11
This is a lesson that a variety of American institutions, especially school districts and businesses, had to learn painfully in the 1990s in the wake of court decisions regarding “sexual harassment.” Having recognized the principle that such an offense exists, and not having stopped any given behavior, they became liable to the charge that such behavior falls under the prohibited category and that they approved of it.
This is a lesson that a variety of American institutions, especially school districts and businesses, had to learn painfully in the 1990s in the wake of court decisions regarding “sexual harassment.” Having recognized the principle that such an offense exists, and not having stopped any given behavior, they became liable to the charge that such behavior falls under the prohibited category and that they approved of it.
12
Georg Kreis,
Zensur und Selbstzensur Die Schwitzerische Presspolitik im Zweiten Weltkrieg
(Stuttgart, Frauenfeld: Huber, 1973), p. 154. See also Edgar Bonjour,
Histoire de la Neutralité Suisse
, vol. V, pp. 155â191.
Georg Kreis,
Zensur und Selbstzensur Die Schwitzerische Presspolitik im Zweiten Weltkrieg
(Stuttgart, Frauenfeld: Huber, 1973), p. 154. See also Edgar Bonjour,
Histoire de la Neutralité Suisse
, vol. V, pp. 155â191.
13
Memorandum Rezzonico E2001 (E) 1/5 Archives Fédérales, Bern. See also Georg Kreis,
Juli 1940
(Zurich).
Chapter 4Memorandum Rezzonico E2001 (E) 1/5 Archives Fédérales, Bern. See also Georg Kreis,
Juli 1940
(Zurich).
1
“Ubersicht des Spezialhandels nach Landern 1927â1950,”
OZD Schweizerische Handelsstatistik
(Bern, 1955).
“Ubersicht des Spezialhandels nach Landern 1927â1950,”
OZD Schweizerische Handelsstatistik
(Bern, 1955).
2
André Allisson,
Exportation du Matériel de Guerre 1938â1941
(Université de Neuchatel Institut d'Histoire, May 1976).
André Allisson,
Exportation du Matériel de Guerre 1938â1941
(Université de Neuchatel Institut d'Histoire, May 1976).
3
Archives Fédérales Suisses,
Les Accords Germano Suisses de la Seconde Guerre Mondiale
(Bern, 1997), p. 915. See also
Historische Statistik der Schweitz
, Ritzman/Siegenthaler S,675, Jaresberichte der OZD.
Archives Fédérales Suisses,
Les Accords Germano Suisses de la Seconde Guerre Mondiale
(Bern, 1997), p. 915. See also
Historische Statistik der Schweitz
, Ritzman/Siegenthaler S,675, Jaresberichte der OZD.
5
Royden and Dangerfield, 81â84.
Royden and Dangerfield, 81â84.
9
Letter of Per Jacobson to Eugen Weber, president of the Swiss National Bank, November 25, 1940, quoted in K. Urner, “E Pohl und die Schweit-erische Nationalbank,”
Schweitzer Monatshefte
, 1985, pp. 623â631.
Letter of Per Jacobson to Eugen Weber, president of the Swiss National Bank, November 25, 1940, quoted in K. Urner, “E Pohl und die Schweit-erische Nationalbank,”
Schweitzer Monatshefte
, 1985, pp. 623â631.
10
Rings, 41â43.
Rings, 41â43.
11
The balances of the major banks are quoted at some length in the
Bergier Commission Report
, Bern, 1998, pp. 158â164.
The balances of the major banks are quoted at some length in the
Bergier Commission Report
, Bern, 1998, pp. 158â164.
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