Blowback (53 page)

8
.

Carroll, op. cit.

9
.

On Kaminsky troops' role in Vlasov Army, see Kostring, “Final Interrogation Report.” On this point see also: George H. Stein,
The Waffen SS
(Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1966), pp. 187–88 and 265. See Alexander Dallin,
The Kaminsky Brigade 1941–1944
(Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Russian Research Center, 1956), hereinafter cited as Dallin,
Kaminsky
. On Kaminsky troops' role in antipartisan and anti-Semitic activities in Belorussia, see Werth, op. cit., pp. 651–64 passim and 782–83; and Gilbert,
Holocaust
, p. 298, for discussion of Belorussian police.

For Guderian comment, see Heinz Höhne,
The Order of the Death's Head
(New York: Ballantine, 1971), p. 615. For Kaminsky troops' role in anti-Semitic murders in Warsaw uprising, see Höhne, op. cit., p. 615ff., and Gilbert,
Holocaust
, p. 717.

10
.

For Bossi-Fedrigotti quote, see Dallin,
German Rule
, p. 519, n. 2. Dallin presents the controversy over Nazi racial politics as it applied to war on the eastern front at length; see pp. 107–304 and 587–636. See also: Dvinov,
Politics of the Russian Emigration
, Dvinov,
Documents
, George Fischer,
Soviet Opposition to Stalin
(Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1952), and John A. Armstrong,
Ukrainian Nationalism 1939–1945
(New York: Columbia University Press, 1955).

11
.

Heygendorff's comments are drawn from secret studies on use of defectors on the eastern front prepared for U.S. Intelligence by German political warfare experts after the war. Though many such reports remain classified, an important collection of them (including the Heygendorff paper) has been published as part of a twenty-four volume series titled
World War II German Military Studies
, edited by Donald Detweiler, Burdick, and Rohwer. See also Köstring and Seraphim's account titled
MS C-043: Eastern Nationals as Volunteers in the German Army
, in the same series, which reaches much the same conclusion as Heygendorff. For a more extensive collection of the United States' systematic program to tap German military knowledge, see the Foreign Military Studies records of RG 338, NA, Washington, D.C.

12
.

For quotations from Nuremberg tribunals cited in this section, see
Trials of War Criminals Before the Nuernberg Military Tribunals Under Control Council Law No. 10
(Washington, D.C: Government Printing Office, 1949–1953), vol. IV, with discussion of the roles of interrogators and
Vorkommandos
on pp. 523–25 and 575–76.

13
.

Strik-Strikfeldt's post as chief interrogator (under Roenne's command in Abwehr Group III) is noted in Heinz Höhne and Hermann Zolling,
The General Was a Spy
(New York: Bantam, 1972), p. 40. See also Cookridge, op. cit., pp. 50–52, 56–67.

14
.

Ohlendorf testimony on the
Einsatzgruppen
appears in an affidavit of April 24, 1947, pp. 92–95, in
Trials of War Criminals
, loc. cit.

15
.

Hilberg's comments on the role of auxiliaries in killing operations is found in Hilberg, op. cit., pp. 205–06 and 243–46, with Biberstein's comment on p. 206.

16
.

On the CIOS and S Force etc., see:
Report of the Combined Intelligence Objectives Subcommittee
, (Washington, D.C: Office of Technical Services, U.S. Department of Commerce, 1944), and Doris Canham,
History of AMC Intelligence, T-2
(Wright Field, Ohio, 1948). For more accessible summaries, see Clarence Lasby,
Project Paperclip
(New York: Antheneum, 1975), pp. 18–26; Boris Pash,
The Alsos Mission
(New York: Award House, 1969), pp. 24, 54, 57–59, and 136; and Michel Bar-Zohar,
La Chasse aux Savants Allemands
(Paris: Librairie Arthéme Fayard, 1965). See also: “Minutes of Meeting Held
20 December 1944” (re: OSS use of T Forces as cover for “unacknowledgeable activities”) Box 52, Entry 115, Folder 3, RG 226, NA, Washington, D.C.

17
.

Pash, op. cit., p. 99; Lasby, op. cit., pp. 16–17. On Alsos, see also Leslie R. Groves,
Now It Can Be Told
(New York: Harper & Row, 1962), and Samuel Goudsmit,
Alsos
(New York: n.p., 1947).

1
.

Dornberger's own account of his wartime career is in Walter Dornberger,
V-2
(New York: Viking, 1958). For another flattering view, see Dieter Huzel,
Peenemiinde to Canaveral
(Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1962). For a slave laborer's perspective, see Jean Michel with Louis Nucera,
Dora
(New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1980). For brief basic biographies of Dornberger, including awards and positions, see R. Turner, ed.,
The Annual Obituary—1980
(New York: St. Martin's Press, 1980), and
Current Biography
1965, p. 125ff. See Lasby, op. cit., pp. 32, 113, and 259, for basic biography and discussion of work at Wright Field.

2
.

Dornberger, op. cit., p. 99ff.

3
.

Original documentation concerning conditions at the Nordhausen works is found in the case record of the war crimes trial
U.S. Army
v.
Kurt Andrae et al.
, August 7 to December 30, 1947, microfilm M1079, NA. On this point see also U.S. Army INSCOM dossier on factory administrator Arthur Rudolph, loc. cit., available through FOIA request. Secondary sources: Pierre Durand,
Les Français
à
Buchenwald et
à
Dora
(Paris: Editions Sociales, c. 1977); Christine Somerhausen,
Les Belges d
è
portes à Dora
(Brussels: Centre Guillaume Jacquemyns, 1979); and Michel, op. cit.

4
.

On authority at the Nordhausen works, see
U.S. Army
v.
Kurt Andrae et al.
, loc. cit. Dornberger largely confirms his pivotal role in production scheduling, though ignoring its significance; see Dornberger, op. cit., pp. 211 and 239.

5
.

Dornberger, op. cit., p. 259; on Dornberger's knowledge of atrocities, see “Niederschrift über die Besprechung um 6.5.1944 im Büro Generaldirektor Rickhey [“Transcript Dealing with the Conference of May 6, 1944, in the Office of Director General Rickhey”],” Imperial War Museum, London, reproduced in Eli Rosenbaum,
[Arthur] Rudolph: The Speer Analogy
(New York: s.p., 1985).

6
.

“German Civilians Compelled to Bury Victims of Nazis,”
New York Times
, April 23, 1945, p. 5; and “Atrocity Films Released,”
New York Times
, April 27, 1945, p. 3. Also noteworthy in the shaping of American opinion concerning Nazi atrocities was the liberation of the somewhat smaller concentration camps at Ohrdruf (April 4, 1945) and at Gardelegen (April 14, 1945). U.S. Generals Dwight D. Eisenhower and George Patton visited Ohrdruf amid heavy publicity; see Gilbert,
Holocaust
, p. 790ff.

7
.

Lasby, op. cit., pp. 37–49, and 85, with $400-$500 million figure on p. 42.

8
.

Ibid., pp. 83–87. On Soviet acquisition of scientists, see also Office of Strategic Services, “General Situation Report No. 2., 15 July to 1 September 1945” (top secret).

9
.

Hunt, op. cit.

10
.

Lasby, op. cit., pp. 77–79.

11
.

Ibid., pp. 80–81.

12
.

Ibid., pp. 58–59.

13
.

Hunt, op. cit, Lasby, op. cit. pp. 151–60 and 176–78. Former OMGUS official quote: confidential informant.

14
.

Lasby, op. cit., p. 159; Hunt, op. cit., with underlying documentation in “Report on Conference with State,” to Director JIOA from Commander C. R. Welte, May 26, 1947; Wev to Chamberlin, July 2, 1947; and Intelligence Division GSUSA from JIOA Deputy Director Walter Rozamus, November 28, 1947.

15
.

Reporter Linda Hunt was the first to unearth records concerning the Pentagon's efforts to suppress military records of the Nazi pasts of certain of the German scientists it was then recruiting; see: Hunt, op. cit. On this point see also “Application of Denazification Procedures to German Scientists,” from Lucius Clay to Noce, September 20, 1947, in which General Clay provides 1,000 blank
Meldebogens
(denazification interview forms) to Noce and argues: “It would be much better to permit them [German scientists] to remain in the U.S. as Nazis without bringing them to trial than to establish special procedures not now within the purview of German law,” in Lucius Clay,
Papers of General Lucius D. Clay
, ed. Jean Edward Smith (Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University Press, 1947), vol. III, pp. 432–33, hereinafter
Clay Papers
.

16
.

Hunt, op. cit. Quote is from cable from JIOA Deputy Director Rozamus to Intelligence Division GSUSA.

17
.

Hunt, op. cit., also Lasby, op. cit., pp. 113, 159, 209, and 245. On Arthur Rudolph: U.S. Department of Justice press statement, October 17, 1984; Ralph Blumenthal, “German-born NASA Expert Quits U.S. to Avoid a War Crimes Suit” and “NASA Refuses to Comment on Its Former Official,”
New York Times
, October 18, 1984, pp. 1 and A-13; James M. Markham, “Ex-Nazi Denies Role in Deaths of Slave Laborers,”
New York Times
, October 21, 1984, p. 8; Thomas O'Toole and Mary Thorton, “A Long Trail to Departure of Ex-Nazi Rocket Expert,”
Washington Post
, November 4, 1984, p. 1. See also Rudolph's extensive U.S. Army INSCOM dossier, available through the Freedom of Information Act.

On Rickhey, see
U.S. Army
v.
Kurt Andrae et al.
, loc. cit.

On Schreiber, see Nuremberg Assistant Prosecutor Alexander Hardy's memo, “The Case of Walter Schreiber,” February 17, 1952.

1
.

Reinhard Gehlen,
The Service
, tr. D. Irving (New York: World Publishing, 1972), pp. 3–10, with quoted statement on p. 6. On Gehlen's surrender, see U.S. Army records, “Report of Interrogation: Gehlen, Reinhard, 28 August 1945,” G-2 MIS-Y, Gehlen folder (secret), Box 472, RG 165, NA. This interrogation report also discusses Bokor's role. Bokor's name is reported there as “Capt. Boka.” For physical description at time of arrest, see “Basic Personnel Record #3WG-1300: Gehlen, Reinhard,” in the same folder. See also: Cook-ridge, op. cit. pp. 111–23; Höhne and Zolling, op. cit., pp. 61–72; Alain Guerin,
Le General Gris
(Paris: Julliard, 1969); and Charles Whiting,
Gehlen: Germany's Master Spy
(New York: Ballantine, 1972).

For Himmler's “peace proposals” mentioned in text, see Hohne, op. cit., p. 583ff.

2
.

Gehlen, op. cit., p. 6ff. Also: Richard Harris Smith,
OSS
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972), pp. 239–41, hereinafter cited as Smith,
OSS
.

On Bokor: interview with retired Colonel John A. S. Bokor, Captain Bokor's son, June 9, 1984.

For original documentation on standing U.S. orders regarding relations with German POWs who had formerly been intelligence officers, see “CounterIntelligence Screening of the German Armed Forces,” Supreme Headquarters of the Allied Expeditionary Forces, March 1945 (secret), Folder GBI/CI/ CS/091.711–2 (Germany), “C. I. Control and Disposal of German Forces,” Box 110, Entry 15, RG 331, NA.

3
.

Smith,
OSS
, p. 240.

For biographic details on Generals Sibert and Bedell Smith, see Department of Defense Office of Public Information Press Branch reports on Sibert (April 3, 1952) and Smith (July 31, 1951), available through the Center for Military History, Washington, D.C. Sibert's obituary appeared in the
Washington Post
on December 23, 1977, and Smith's career is discussed in
Webster's American Military Biographies
(Springfield, Mass.: G & C Merriam, 1979), p. 400.

4
.

See Gehlen, “Report of Interrogation.”

5
.

On starvation camps, see Werth, op. cit., p. 643ff., and Davidson, op. cit., p. 568. On Gehlen's wartime role in German POW interrogation programs, see David Kahn,
Hitler's Spies: German Military Intelligence in World War II
(New York: Macmillan, 1978), pp. 142–51, 428–35 passim.

6
.

For Gehlen “on principle” quote, see Höhne and Zolling, op. cit., p. 196, or Jürgen Thorwald, “Der Mann im Dunkelin,”
Welt am Sontage
, December 18, 1956.

On Sommer, Krichbaum, and Schmidt, see Cookridge, op. cit., pp. 144–45; Hühne and Zolling, op. cit., p. 199.

7
.

Bokor interview, June 9, 1984.

8
.

Höhne and Zolling, op. cit., p. 172.

9
.

On Dr. Franz Alfred Six: For quote on “solving the Jewish Question,” see
Trials of War Criminals
, vol. IV, p. 525, with a summary of Six's war crimes on p. 521ff. On wartime role, see Central Intelligence Agency,
Study of Intelligence and Counterintelligence Activities on the Eastern Front and Adjacent Areas During World War II
(confidential), Addendum G: “Members of the SS Who Participated in Mass Executions and Atrocities,” p. 7, RG 263, NA, hereinafter cited as
CIA Eastern Front Study
. See also State Department Propaganda Investigation Team, “Investigation Report,” April 30, 1946, interrogation of Franz Six and Horst Mahnke, RG 238, NA; and State Department Special Interrogation Mission, interrogation of Fritz E. A. von Twardowsky, October 3, 1945, Box 745, Entry 179 (G-2 ID MIS-Y records), RG 165, NA. Six's SS and NSDAP dossier is available through the Berlin Document Center, SS No. 107480, NSDAP No. 245,670.

On Six's “eager beaver” relationship with Himmler:
Das Eichmann-Protokoll
(Berlin: Severin und Siedler, 1982); or
Eichmann Interrogated
(New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1983), pp. 27 and 29. See also Twardowsky interrogation, loc. cit.

Six's writings circulated by the Nazis include
Europa: Tradition und Zukunft
(1944) and
Feimaurerei und Judenemanzipation
(1938), both published by Hanseatische Verlagsansalt, Hamburg;
Les Guerres Intestines en Europe et la Guerre d'Union du Présent
, n. d. (1941?); and
Dokumente der deutschen Politik
(Berlin: Deutsches Auslandswissenschaftliches Institut, 1942).

On Augsburg's role noted in the text, see Emil Augsburg records at the Berlin Document Center, SS No. 307925.

10
.

For an overview of Amt VI, see Kahn, op. cit., pp. 253–71; Hohne and Zolling, op. cit., pp. 368–69; and Walter Schellenberg,
The Labyrinth
, tr. Louis Hagen (New York: Harper Bros., 1956), pp. 273–76.

On Poppe: Author's interviews with Nikolai N. Poppe, October 26 and December 4, 1984, and Nicholas Poppe (Nikolai N. Poppe),
Reminiscences
, ed. Henry Schwartz (Bellingham, Wash.: Western Washington University Center for East Asian Studies, 1983), p. 163ff.