Read Catching Fire: How Cooking Made Us Human Online
Authors: Richard Wrangham
Tags: #Cooking, #History, #Political Science, #Public Policy, #Cultural Policy, #Science, #Life Sciences, #Evolution, #Social Science, #Anthropology, #General, #Cultural, #Popular Culture, #Agriculture & Food, #Technology & Engineering, #Fire Science
Catching Fire: How Cooking Made Us Human (22 page)
BOOK: Catching Fire: How Cooking Made Us Human
5.08Mb size Format: txt, pdf, ePub
ads
My interest in cooking comes largely from trying to understand reasons for similarities and differences between the behavior of chimpanzees and humans. I have been fortunate to have had the opportunity to study chimpanzee behavioral ecology in Kibale National Park, Uganda, and Gombe National Park, Tanzania. For the financial support that made the Kibale studies possible, I am grateful to the National Science Foundation, Leakey Foundation, National Geographic Society, MacArthur Foundation, and Getty Foundation. For collaboration, I thank especially Adam Arcadi, Colin Chapman, Kim Duffy, Alexander Georgiev, Ian Gilby, Jane Goodall, David Hamburg, Kevin Hunt, Gil Isabirye-Basuta, Sonya Kahlenberg, John Kasenene, Martin Muller, Emily Otali, Amy Pokempner, Herman Pontzer, Anne Pusey, Melissa Emery Thompson, and Michael Wilson.
The late Harry Foster took a gamble when he supported this book, and I much regret that he did not live to see it finished. The support of Amanda Moon, Elizabeth Stein, and Bill Frucht at Basic Books, and the patience of John Brock-man and Katinka Matson, were critical.
This project has been immensely rewarding but it intruded grievously into my family’s lives. With apology and love, this book is for Ross, David, and Ian, and most especially for Elizabeth.
NOTES
Introduction: The Cooking Hypothesis2
The fossil record:
For human evolution, see Klein (1999), Wolpoff (1999), Lewin and Foley (2004). Popular: Zimmer (2005), Wade (2007), Sawyer et al. (2007).
The fossil record:
For human evolution, see Klein (1999), Wolpoff (1999), Lewin and Foley (2004). Popular: Zimmer (2005), Wade (2007), Sawyer et al. (2007).
3
sharp flakes dug from Ethiopian rock:
Toth and Schick (2006).
sharp flakes dug from Ethiopian rock:
Toth and Schick (2006).
5
some habilines evolved into
Homo erectus
:
The fossils I refer to as habilines are conventionally called either
Australopithecus habilis
or
Homo habilis:
Haeusler and McHenry (2004), Wood and Collard (1999). I call them habilines because they do not fit tidily into either
Australopithecus
or
Homo
. The dates of origin and disappearance of the habilines and
Homo erectus
are not precisely known. The most recent evidence of a habiline is at 1.44 million years ago (Koobi Fora, Kenya, specimen number KNM-ER 42703, Spoor et al. [2007]), while
Homo erectus
is possibly seen as early as 1.9 million years ago (KNM-ER 2598), and definitely by 1.78 million years ago (KNM-ER 3733, Antón [2003]). This means
Homo erectus
could have overlapped with habilines for almost half a million years, though the two species did not necessarily occupy the same areas at the same times. Characteristics of
Homo erectus
: Aiello and Wells (2002), Antón (2003).
some habilines evolved into
Homo erectus
:
The fossils I refer to as habilines are conventionally called either
Australopithecus habilis
or
Homo habilis:
Haeusler and McHenry (2004), Wood and Collard (1999). I call them habilines because they do not fit tidily into either
Australopithecus
or
Homo
. The dates of origin and disappearance of the habilines and
Homo erectus
are not precisely known. The most recent evidence of a habiline is at 1.44 million years ago (Koobi Fora, Kenya, specimen number KNM-ER 42703, Spoor et al. [2007]), while
Homo erectus
is possibly seen as early as 1.9 million years ago (KNM-ER 2598), and definitely by 1.78 million years ago (KNM-ER 3733, Antón [2003]). This means
Homo erectus
could have overlapped with habilines for almost half a million years, though the two species did not necessarily occupy the same areas at the same times. Characteristics of
Homo erectus
: Aiello and Wells (2002), Antón (2003).
5
some anthropologists call them
Homo sapiens
:
Antón (2003, p. 127) reviews the naming debate.
some anthropologists call them
Homo sapiens
:
Antón (2003, p. 127) reviews the naming debate.
6
According to the most popular view:
Cartmill (1993) reviews the history of meat-eating hypotheses. Recent advocates for the importance of meat eating in human evolution and adaptation include Stanford (1999), Kaplan et al. (2000), Stanford and Bunn (2001), and Bramble and Lieberman (2004). O’Connell et al. (2002) provide a critique.
According to the most popular view:
Cartmill (1993) reviews the history of meat-eating hypotheses. Recent advocates for the importance of meat eating in human evolution and adaptation include Stanford (1999), Kaplan et al. (2000), Stanford and Bunn (2001), and Bramble and Lieberman (2004). O’Connell et al. (2002) provide a critique.
10
“probably the greatest [discovery], excepting language, ever made by man”:
Darwin (1871 [2006]), p. 855. Accounts of learning to make fire, and reports of camping days that ended with a cooked evening meal, are in Darwin (1888).
“probably the greatest [discovery], excepting language, ever made by man”:
Darwin (1871 [2006]), p. 855. Accounts of learning to make fire, and reports of camping days that ended with a cooked evening meal, are in Darwin (1888).
10
He cited his fellow evolutionist Alfred Russel Wallace:
Darwin (1871 [2006]), p. 867.
He cited his fellow evolutionist Alfred Russel Wallace:
Darwin (1871 [2006]), p. 867.
12 “
People do not have to cook their food”:
Lévi-Strauss (1969); Leach (1970), p. 92.
People do not have to cook their food”:
Lévi-Strauss (1969); Leach (1970), p. 92.
12
The celebrated French gastronomist Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin:
Brillat-Savarin (1971), p. 279.
The celebrated French gastronomist Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin:
Brillat-Savarin (1971), p. 279.
12
ideas suggesting how the control of fire:
Coon (1962), Brace (1995), Perlès (1999), Goudsblom (1992). Quotes are from Symons (1998), pp. 213, 223; Fernandez-Armesto (2001), p. 4.
ideas suggesting how the control of fire:
Coon (1962), Brace (1995), Perlès (1999), Goudsblom (1992). Quotes are from Symons (1998), pp. 213, 223; Fernandez-Armesto (2001), p. 4.
14
Those claims constitute the cooking hypothesis
: Wrangham et al. (1999), Wrangham (2006). Collard and Wood (1999) and Wood and Strait (2004) briefly argued in favor of cooking as a stimulus for the evolution of
H. erectus
.
One: Quest for Raw-FoodistsThose claims constitute the cooking hypothesis
: Wrangham et al. (1999), Wrangham (2006). Collard and Wood (1999) and Wood and Strait (2004) briefly argued in favor of cooking as a stimulus for the evolution of
H. erectus
.
15
Mongol warriors of the thirteenth century:
Polo (1926), p. 94.
Mongol warriors of the thirteenth century:
Polo (1926), p. 94.
16
nine volunteers:
The Evo Diet experiment was described by Fullerton-Smith (2007).
nine volunteers:
The Evo Diet experiment was described by Fullerton-Smith (2007).
17
Raw-foodists are dedicated
: Many contemporary devotees insist on their diets being 100 percent raw, but most of those who call themselves raw-foodists are not so strict, in some cases allowing half of their diet to be cooked. Most raw-foodists are vegans, eating diets of germinated seeds, sprouts, cereals, nuts, vegetables, and fruits. Oils and oily fruits such as avocado can be particularly important (Hobbs [2005]).
Raw-foodists are dedicated
: Many contemporary devotees insist on their diets being 100 percent raw, but most of those who call themselves raw-foodists are not so strict, in some cases allowing half of their diet to be cooked. Most raw-foodists are vegans, eating diets of germinated seeds, sprouts, cereals, nuts, vegetables, and fruits. Oils and oily fruits such as avocado can be particularly important (Hobbs [2005]).
17
There are only three studies of body weight in raw-foodists:
Koebnick et al. (1999), Donaldson (2001), Fontana et al. (2005). The Koebnick study has the largest sample and widest range of diets, but all had similar results. Donaldson (2001) studied vegetarians. On a diet of dehydrated barley juice and nineteen daily servings of fruit and vegetables, the subjects felt better than when they had eaten cooked food, but their energy intake was 20 percent below recommended levels. Women took in a mere 1,460 calories per day and men 1,830 calories per day. Fontana et al. (2005) studied raw-foodists and controls matched by age and height. Women who ate raw food weighed 12.6 kilograms less (27.7 pounds) than their counterparts who ate cooked food, while the equivalent drop for men was 17.5 kilograms (38.5 pounds).
There are only three studies of body weight in raw-foodists:
Koebnick et al. (1999), Donaldson (2001), Fontana et al. (2005). The Koebnick study has the largest sample and widest range of diets, but all had similar results. Donaldson (2001) studied vegetarians. On a diet of dehydrated barley juice and nineteen daily servings of fruit and vegetables, the subjects felt better than when they had eaten cooked food, but their energy intake was 20 percent below recommended levels. Women took in a mere 1,460 calories per day and men 1,830 calories per day. Fontana et al. (2005) studied raw-foodists and controls matched by age and height. Women who ate raw food weighed 12.6 kilograms less (27.7 pounds) than their counterparts who ate cooked food, while the equivalent drop for men was 17.5 kilograms (38.5 pounds).
18
no difference in body weight between vegetarians and meat eaters:
Rosell et al. (2005).
no difference in body weight between vegetarians and meat eaters:
Rosell et al. (2005).
18 “
I’m almost always hungry”:
Journalist Jodi Mardesich’s diary was posted at
www.slate.com/id/2090570/entry/2090637/
.
19
The Giessen Raw Food study found that 82 percent:
Koebnick et al. (2005).
I’m almost always hungry”:
Journalist Jodi Mardesich’s diary was posted at
www.slate.com/id/2090570/entry/2090637/
.
19
The Giessen Raw Food study found that 82 percent:
Koebnick et al. (2005).
19
healthy women on cooked diets rarely fail to menstruate:
Barr (1999), who also reported that among women with stable body weight, vegetarians had fewer menstrual disturbances than those who ate meat.
healthy women on cooked diets rarely fail to menstruate:
Barr (1999), who also reported that among women with stable body weight, vegetarians had fewer menstrual disturbances than those who ate meat.
20
Reduced reproductive function means:
Ellison (2001) describes the impact of activity on reproductive function.
Reduced reproductive function means:
Ellison (2001) describes the impact of activity on reproductive function.
21
Anthropologist Elizabeth Marshall Thomas describes
: Thomas (1959).
Anthropologist Elizabeth Marshall Thomas describes
: Thomas (1959).
22
nutritional biochemist NancyLou Conklin-Brittain finds that carrots contain:
Conklin-Brittain et al. (2002).
nutritional biochemist NancyLou Conklin-Brittain finds that carrots contain:
Conklin-Brittain et al. (2002).
22
Anthropologist George Silberbauer reported
: Silberbauer (1981).
Anthropologist George Silberbauer reported
: Silberbauer (1981).
23
periodic shortages of energy like this are routine:
Jenike (2001).
periodic shortages of energy like this are routine:
Jenike (2001).
23
Self Healing Power!
Fry et al. (2003).
Self Healing Power!
Fry et al. (2003).
23
They report a sense of well-being:
Hobbs (2005), Donaldson (2001).
They report a sense of well-being:
Hobbs (2005), Donaldson (2001).
23
reductions in rheumatoid arthritis and fibromyalgia symptoms:
Hobbs (2005).
reductions in rheumatoid arthritis and fibromyalgia symptoms:
Hobbs (2005).
23 “
Natural nutrition is raw”:
Arlin et al. (1996). 23
Many follow the pseudoscientific ideas of vegetarian Edward Howell:
Howell (1994).
Natural nutrition is raw”:
Arlin et al. (1996). 23
Many follow the pseudoscientific ideas of vegetarian Edward Howell:
Howell (1994).
24
Other raw-foodists are guided by moral principles:
Symons (1998), p. 98, cites Greek sources on the unnaturalness of cooking and meat eating.
Other raw-foodists are guided by moral principles:
Symons (1998), p. 98, cites Greek sources on the unnaturalness of cooking and meat eating.
24
the poet Percy Bysshe Shelley:
His argument was published privately in 1813 as
A Vindication of Natural Diet.
Shelley’s wife, Mary Shelley, was so inspired by her husband’s ideas about the corrosive influences of cooking that when she wrote
Frankenstein
in 1818, she subtitled it
The Modern Prometheus
(Shelley [1982]). Like imagined ancestors in a golden age, Frankenstein’s created human (the “monster”) was a vegetarian who at first ate his food raw: he relied on finding berries in trees or lying on the ground. When Frankenstein’s monster found a campfire abandoned by beggars, he discovered that cooking improved the taste of offal. Mary Shelley thus echoed old ideas that the importance of cooking lay in better tastes. However, she appeared to acknowledge that humans now need cooked food, because the monster declared himself to be similar to real humans in almost all ways except that he could survive on a coarser diet. She herself ate her food cooked.
the poet Percy Bysshe Shelley:
His argument was published privately in 1813 as
A Vindication of Natural Diet.
Shelley’s wife, Mary Shelley, was so inspired by her husband’s ideas about the corrosive influences of cooking that when she wrote
Frankenstein
in 1818, she subtitled it
The Modern Prometheus
(Shelley [1982]). Like imagined ancestors in a golden age, Frankenstein’s created human (the “monster”) was a vegetarian who at first ate his food raw: he relied on finding berries in trees or lying on the ground. When Frankenstein’s monster found a campfire abandoned by beggars, he discovered that cooking improved the taste of offal. Mary Shelley thus echoed old ideas that the importance of cooking lay in better tastes. However, she appeared to acknowledge that humans now need cooked food, because the monster declared himself to be similar to real humans in almost all ways except that he could survive on a coarser diet. She herself ate her food cooked.
25
Instinctotherapists:
Devivo and Spors (2003).
Instinctotherapists:
Devivo and Spors (2003).
26
Recent studies indicate that low bone mass:
Fontana et al. (2005). Other health consequences: Koebnick et al. (2005).
Recent studies indicate that low bone mass:
Fontana et al. (2005). Other health consequences: Koebnick et al. (2005).
26
What about reliance on raw food in nonindustrialized cultures?
Sumerians: Symons (1998), p. 256. “Only savages” is from the Chevalier Louis de Jaucourt, cited by Symons (1998), p. 100. Seri: Fontana (2000), p. 22. Fontana (2000), p. xxvii, said much of what McGee wrote about the Seri has been thoroughly discredited. McGee wanted to prove the Seri would be primitive, and made unsupported claims to buttress his preconceptions. Felger and Moser (1985), p. 86, describe Seri cooking. They wrote that the “numerous earlier accounts of the Seri eating raw or even spoiled meat may be somewhat exaggerated or secondhand information.” Pygmies in Ruwenzoris:
New Vision
(Uganda newspaper), March 2, 2007, citing the executive director of Uganda’s Rural Welfare Improvement for Development. Pygmies have been much studied everywhere. Pygmies cook their food, from Camaroon to Uganda. There have been many parallel claims about the existence of tribes who do not know how to make fire. Again, these claims have been carefully examined and found to be wrong. Particular individuals may be poor at making fire, however. Furthermore, there can be times when people do not have the relevant tool kit at hand, such as fire stones, drills, and tinder. For universal cooking: Tylor (1870), p. 239. For universal fire-making: Frazer (1930), Gott (2002).
What about reliance on raw food in nonindustrialized cultures?
Sumerians: Symons (1998), p. 256. “Only savages” is from the Chevalier Louis de Jaucourt, cited by Symons (1998), p. 100. Seri: Fontana (2000), p. 22. Fontana (2000), p. xxvii, said much of what McGee wrote about the Seri has been thoroughly discredited. McGee wanted to prove the Seri would be primitive, and made unsupported claims to buttress his preconceptions. Felger and Moser (1985), p. 86, describe Seri cooking. They wrote that the “numerous earlier accounts of the Seri eating raw or even spoiled meat may be somewhat exaggerated or secondhand information.” Pygmies in Ruwenzoris:
New Vision
(Uganda newspaper), March 2, 2007, citing the executive director of Uganda’s Rural Welfare Improvement for Development. Pygmies have been much studied everywhere. Pygmies cook their food, from Camaroon to Uganda. There have been many parallel claims about the existence of tribes who do not know how to make fire. Again, these claims have been carefully examined and found to be wrong. Particular individuals may be poor at making fire, however. Furthermore, there can be times when people do not have the relevant tool kit at hand, such as fire stones, drills, and tinder. For universal cooking: Tylor (1870), p. 239. For universal fire-making: Frazer (1930), Gott (2002).
27
The quirky nutritionist Edward Howell thought so:
Howell (1994).
The quirky nutritionist Edward Howell thought so:
Howell (1994).
27
The most detailed studies of unwesternized Inuit diets were by Vilhjalmur Stefansson:
Stefansson’s diaries are detailed in Pálsson (2001), pp. 95, 97, 100, 204, 210, 282. See also Stefansson (1913), pp. 174, and Stefansson (1944).
The most detailed studies of unwesternized Inuit diets were by Vilhjalmur Stefansson:
Stefansson’s diaries are detailed in Pálsson (2001), pp. 95, 97, 100, 204, 210, 282. See also Stefansson (1913), pp. 174, and Stefansson (1944).
28
“Woe betide the wife who keeps him waiting”:
Jenness (1922), p. 100.
“Woe betide the wife who keeps him waiting”:
Jenness (1922), p. 100.
30
like every culture the main meal of the day was taken in the evening:
Quote is from Tanaka (1980), p. 30. Evidence of hunter-gatherers eating evening meals: Inuit: “The one cooked meal of the day was in the evening,” Burch (1998), p. 44; Tiwi: “at least two or three of [my wives] are likely to bring something back with them at the end of the day, and then we can all eat,” Hart and Pilling (1960), p. 35; Aranda: “The principal meal is generally taken toward evening, when returning from the hunt and the
mana
-gathering. The women collect the fuel,” Schulze (1891), p. 233. Siriono: “The principal meal is always taken in the later afternoon or early evening,” with each nuclear family cooking its own food, Holmberg (1969), p. 87; Andaman Islanders: “In the afternoon the women return with what food they have obtained and then the men come in with their provision. The camp, unless the hunters have been unsuccessful, is then busy with the preparation of the evening meal, which is the chief meal of the day. . . . The meat is distributed amongst the members of the community and the woman of each family then proceeds to cook the family meal,” Radcliffe-Brown (1922), p. 38; Tlingit: “Formerly they ate but twice daily: the morning meal upon rising . . . and evening food.” “The latter was the substantial meal . . . the hunter or traveler would not eat until he was safe in camp, or the day’s work done,” Emmons (1991), p. 140. I have found no exceptions to the evening meal being the main reported meal for hunter-gatherers.
like every culture the main meal of the day was taken in the evening:
Quote is from Tanaka (1980), p. 30. Evidence of hunter-gatherers eating evening meals: Inuit: “The one cooked meal of the day was in the evening,” Burch (1998), p. 44; Tiwi: “at least two or three of [my wives] are likely to bring something back with them at the end of the day, and then we can all eat,” Hart and Pilling (1960), p. 35; Aranda: “The principal meal is generally taken toward evening, when returning from the hunt and the
mana
-gathering. The women collect the fuel,” Schulze (1891), p. 233. Siriono: “The principal meal is always taken in the later afternoon or early evening,” with each nuclear family cooking its own food, Holmberg (1969), p. 87; Andaman Islanders: “In the afternoon the women return with what food they have obtained and then the men come in with their provision. The camp, unless the hunters have been unsuccessful, is then busy with the preparation of the evening meal, which is the chief meal of the day. . . . The meat is distributed amongst the members of the community and the woman of each family then proceeds to cook the family meal,” Radcliffe-Brown (1922), p. 38; Tlingit: “Formerly they ate but twice daily: the morning meal upon rising . . . and evening food.” “The latter was the substantial meal . . . the hunter or traveler would not eat until he was safe in camp, or the day’s work done,” Emmons (1991), p. 140. I have found no exceptions to the evening meal being the main reported meal for hunter-gatherers.
31
Most fruits are preferred raw and are eaten in the bush:
The proportion of plant species always eaten cooked was markedly higher for roots (76 percent of fifty-one species), seeds (76 percent of forty-five species) and nuts (75 percent of sixteen species) than for fruits (5 percent of ninety-seven species). Data tallied from Appendix in Isaacs (1987). Raw snacks by day: Australians: O’Dea (1991); Peruvians: Johnson (2003).
Most fruits are preferred raw and are eaten in the bush:
The proportion of plant species always eaten cooked was markedly higher for roots (76 percent of fifty-one species), seeds (76 percent of forty-five species) and nuts (75 percent of sixteen species) than for fruits (5 percent of ninety-seven species). Data tallied from Appendix in Isaacs (1987). Raw snacks by day: Australians: O’Dea (1991); Peruvians: Johnson (2003).
31
Dougal Robertson, and his family lost their boat to killer whales:
Robertson (1973).
Dougal Robertson, and his family lost their boat to killer whales:
Robertson (1973).
33
The case that comes closest to long-term survival on raw wild food is that of Helena Valero:
Valero and Biocca (1970), chapter 13.
The case that comes closest to long-term survival on raw wild food is that of Helena Valero:
Valero and Biocca (1970), chapter 13.
34
Anthropologist Allan Holmberg was at a remote mission station in Bolivia:
Holmberg (1969), p. 72.
Anthropologist Allan Holmberg was at a remote mission station in Bolivia:
Holmberg (1969), p. 72.
35
Robert Burke and William Wills led an ill-fated expedition:
Murgatroyd (2002).
Robert Burke and William Wills led an ill-fated expedition:
Murgatroyd (2002).
35
it is rare for people to even attempt to survive on raw food in the wild:
Pacific: Heyerdahl (1996); Andes: Read (1974); Essex: Philbrick (2000); Japanese: Onoda (1974).
it is rare for people to even attempt to survive on raw food in the wild:
Pacific: Heyerdahl (1996); Andes: Read (1974); Essex: Philbrick (2000); Japanese: Onoda (1974).
36
“he got fire by rubbing two sticks of Piemento Wood together upon his knee”:
Quote is from Woodes Rogers, in Letterman (2003), p. 73.
“he got fire by rubbing two sticks of Piemento Wood together upon his knee”:
Quote is from Woodes Rogers, in Letterman (2003), p. 73.
BOOK: Catching Fire: How Cooking Made Us Human
5.08Mb size Format: txt, pdf, ePub
ads
Other books
Plague Bomb by James Rouch
Charisma by Jo Bannister
The Collected Joe Abercrombie by Abercrombie, Joe
Five Women by Rona Jaffe
Theirs to Bear: Icy Cap Den #3 (Alaskan Den Men) by Jennifer Hilt
Penal Island by K. Lyn
A Twist in the Tale (2011) by Comley, Mel
Maizon at Blue Hill by Jacqueline Woodson
Writing a Wrong by Tiffany King