Collins Cobuild English Grammar (134 page)

My respect
for her
is absolutely enormous.
Women’s tennis puts an emphasis
on technique
, not strength.
He is responsible
for pursuing the claim
.

comparisons with
than
and
like

6.119
  A prepositional phrase with
than
often shows the person or thing that is the basis of a comparison.

He was smarter
than you
.
She was more refined
than her husband
.

For more information on
comparisons
, see the section beginning at paragraph
2.103
.

The preposition
like
is used to show that someone or something is similar to someone or something else, without comparing any specific quality.

The British forces are
like permanent tourists
.
We need many more people
like these
.

of

6.120
  
Of
is used in prepositional phrases after any noun to indicate various relationships between one noun phrase and another, especially belonging, possession, and connection. It can be used to state what something is, what it contains, what it is made from, or how much of it there is.

He was a member
of the golf club
.
She’s a friend
of Stephen’s
.
…the Mayor
of Moscow
.

Extended meanings of prepositions

6.121
  The uses of prepositional phrases to express time and manner are really extended or metaphorical uses that cover a wide range of prepositions and are part of a metaphor that affects many other aspects of language as well. For example, when you talk about
approaching a point in time
,
a short stretch of time
, and so on, you are using words that refer to space to talk about time.

However, there are also extended meanings that apply only to small groups of prepositions, or sometimes only to individual prepositions.

For example,
in
basically indicates position inside a container.

What’s that
in your bag
?
It will end up
in the dustbin
.

However, it is often used with reference to areas rather than containers.

Emma sat
in an armchair
with her legs crossed.
Then we were told what had happened
in Sheffield
.

In
is also used to talk about relative position.

We had to do something
in the centre
of the town to attract visitors.

However,
in
is also used in ways that extend its meaning further away from physical position. For example, it can be used to say that someone is involved in a particular situation, group, or activity.

They were
in no danger
.
The child was
in trouble
with the police.
This government won’t be
in power
for ever.
Mr Matthews has remained
in office
but the island has no Parliament.

It can show inclusion in a more abstract way.

Some of her early Hollywood experiences were used
in her 1923 film
, Mary of the Movies.
In any book
, there is a moral purpose.

It can also indicate that something has reached a particular stage, or appears in a particular way.

The first primroses are
in flower
.
Her hair was
in pigtails
over either shoulder.

A few other prepositions with a basic meaning relating to containers are used in similar ways: for example
within
,
into
,
out of
.

Anything
within reason
should be considered.
When we get those men
into the police force
, they are going to be real heroes.
Heroines who were considered attractive by earlier generations now seem hopelessly
out of touch
.

Other ways of giving information about place

noun phrases referring to place: place names

6.122
  Some verbs of position and movement are followed by noun phrases referring to places. These are described in paragraph
3.21
.

Peel approached
the building
.

6.123
  Instead of using a noun phrase to refer to a place, you can use the name of the place.

This great block of land became
Antarctica
.
…an island roughly the size of
Martha’s Vineyard
.
Her work is on show at the
National Museum of Film and Photography
in
Bradford
.

verbs after place names

6.124
  Most place names are singular nouns, although some look like plural nouns, for example
The Netherlands
. Some place names, for example those referring to groups of islands or mountains, are plural nouns. Verbs used with place names follow the normal rules, so a singular verb form is used with a singular noun and a plural verb form with a plural noun.

Milan
is
a very interesting city.
The Andes
split
the country down the middle.

place names used for talking about people

6.125
  The name of a place can be used to talk about the people who live there. If the place name is a singular noun, a singular verb form is still used, even though the noun is being used to refer to a plural concept.

Europe
was sick of war.

The name of a country or its capital city is often used to talk about the government of that country.

Britain
and
France
jointly suggested a plan.
Washington
put a great deal of pressure on
Tokyo
.

place names used for talking about events

6.126
  Place names are also used to talk about a well-known historical or recent event that occurred there, such as a battle, a disaster, an international sports competition, a scandal, or an important political meeting.

After
Waterloo
, trade and industry surged again.
What was the effect of
Chernobyl
on British agriculture?
…the chain of events that led to
Watergate
.

place names used as modifiers before nouns

6.127
  Many place names can be used as modifiers, to show where things come from or are characteristic of, as well as where things are.

…a
London
hotel.
…the
New Zealand
rugby team.

If a place name begins with
the
, you omit it when you use the name as a modifier.

…
Arctic
explorers.
She has a
Midlands
accent.

Note that the names of continents and of many countries cannot be used as modifiers. Instead, you use classifying adjectives such as
African
and
Italian
.

7 Reporting what people say or think

7.1
      This chapter explains the different ways of reporting what people say or think.

7.2
      One way of reporting what someone has said is to repeat their actual words.

‘I don’t know much about music,’ Judy said.

Repeating someone’s actual words like this is called
direct speech
.

Instead of repeating Judy’s words, the writer could say,
Judy said that she didn’t know much about music
. This is called
reported speech
. Some grammars called this
indirect speech
.

Direct speech and reported speech both consist of two clauses. The main clause is called a
reporting clause
. The other clause shows what someone said or thought.

In
direct speech
, this other clause is called the
quote
.

‘
Have you met him
?’ I asked.
‘
I’sll see you tomorrow
,’ said Tom.

In
reported speech
, the other clause is called the
reported clause
.

He mentioned
that he had a brother living in London
.
He asked
if you would be able to call and see him
.
He promised
to give me the money
.

Note that the reported clause can begin with a
to
-infinitive.

7.3
      In ordinary conversation, we use
reported speech
much more often than
direct speech
. This is because we usually do not know, or cannot remember, the exact words that someone has said. Direct speech is mainly used in written stories.

When we report people’s thoughts, we almost always use reported speech, because thoughts do not usually exist in the form of words, so we cannot quote them exactly. Reported speech can be used to report almost any kind of thought.

7.4
      Paragraphs
7.5
to
7.15
explain verbs used in
reporting clauses
. Paragraphs
7.16
to
7.26
explain
direct speech
. Paragraphs
7.27
to
7.71
explain
reported speech
. Paragraphs
7.72
to
7.81
explain how to refer to the speaker and hearer in direct speech or reported speech. Paragraphs
7.82
to
7.85
explain other ways of indicating what someone says or talks about.

Showing that you are reporting: using reporting verbs

7.5
      You show that you are quoting or reporting what someone has said or thought by using a
reporting verb
. Every reporting clause contains a reporting verb.

‘I don’t see what you are getting at,’ Jeremy
said
.
He looked old, Harold
thought
, and sick.
They
were complaining
that Canton was hot and noisy.

basic reporting verbs

7.6
      You use
say
when you are simply reporting what someone said and do not want to add any more information about what you are reporting.

She
said
that she didn’t want to know.

You use
ask
when you are reporting a question.

‘How’s it all going?’ Derek
asked
.

showing the purpose of speaking

7.7
      Some reporting verbs such as
answer
,
complain
, and
explain
tell you what purpose an utterance was intended to serve. For example,
answer
tells you that a statement was intended as an answer, and
complain
tells you that a statement was intended as a complaint.