Command and Control (99 page)

“The world is now on the precipice”
:
Ibid.

the two nations that control about 90 percent of those weapons
:
Cited in Madeleine Albright and Igor Ivanov, “A New Agenda for U.S.-Russia Cooperation,”
New York Times,
December 30, 2012.

The campaign to eliminate nuclear weapons
:
For a fine account of today's antinuclear movement, see Philip Taubman,
The Partnership: Five Cold Warriors and Their
Quest to Ban the Bomb
(New York: HarperCollins, 2012). For a detailed look at how such disarmament might occur, see “Modernizing U.S. Nuclear Strategy, Force Structure and Posture,” Global Zero U.S. Nuclear Policy Commission, May 2012. And for a strongly contrary point of view, see Rebeccah Heindrichs and Baker Spring, “Deterrence and Nuclear Targeting in the 21st Century,” Backgrounder on Arms Control and Nonproliferation, The Heritage Foundation, November 30, 2012.

“Some argue that the spread of these weapons”
:
“Remarks by President Barack Obama, Hradcany Square, Prague, Czech Republic,” The White House, Office of the Press Secretary, April 5, 2009.

“Such fatalism is a deadly adversary”
:
Ibid.

“a world without nuclear weapons”
:
Ibid.

an average age of seventy-nine
:
Nunn was sixty-eight; Perry, eighty; Kissinger, eighty-three; and Shultz, eighty-six.

Bush's counterforce strategy
:
For an analysis of how the Bush administration planned to use nuclear weapons, see Charles L. Glaser and Steve Fetter, “Counterforce Revisited: Assessing the Nuclear Posture Review's New Missions,”
International Security
, vol. 30, no. 2 (Fall 2005), pp. 84–126.

“nuclear disarmament fantasy”
:
Harold Brown and John Deutch, “The Nuclear Disarmament Fantasy,”
Wall Street Journal
, November 19, 2007.

“Hope is not a policy”
:
Ibid.

In 2010 a group of high-ranking Air Force officials
:
James Wood Forsyth, Jr.; Colonel B. Chance Saltzman, USAF; and Gary Schaub, Jr., “Remembrance of Things Past: The Enduring Value of Nuclear Weapons,”
Strategic Studies Quarterly,
vol. 4, no. 1 (Spring 2010), p. 82.

almost 200 fewer weapons
:
A report by the two groups suggested that in the future the United States will need only five hundred nuclear weapons for deterrence. See Hans M. Kristensen, Robert S. Norris, and Ivan Oelrich, “From Counterforce to Minimal Deterrence: A New Nuclear Policy on the Path Toward Eliminating Nuclear Weapons,” Federation of American Scientists and the Natural Resources Defense Council, Occasional Paper No. 7, April 2009, p. 44.

the problems with a strategy of minimum deterrence
:
The morality of killing civilians as an act of vengeance—after their leaders launched a nuclear attack—has always been an awkward subject for deterrence theorists. In a recent book, the author Ron Rosenbaum questioned the ethics of a retaliatory nuclear strike and urged missile crews to disobey any order to launch: “Nothing justifies following orders for genocide.” For a provocative analysis of the issue, see John D. Steinbruner and Tyler Wigg-Stevenson, “Reconsidering the Morality of Deterrence,” CISSM Working Paper, Center for International and Security Studies at Maryland, University of Maryland, March 2012; and Ron Rosenbaum,
How the End Begins: The Road to a Nuclear World War III
(New York: Simon & Schuster, 2011). The quote can be found on page 260.

Reports

“Acceptable Premature Probabilities for Nuclear Weapons,” Headquarters Field Command, Armed Forces Special Weapons Project, FC/10570136, October 1, 1957 (
SECRET/RESTRICTRED DATA
/declassified).

“Accidental War: Some Dangers in the 1960s,” Mershon Center for Education in National Security, Housmans (n.d.).

“Accident Environments,” T. D. Brumleve, Chairman, Task Group on Accident Environments, Sandia Laboratories, SCL-DR-69-86, January 1970 (
SECRET/RESTRICTED DATA
/declassified).

“Accidents and Incidents Involving Nuclear Weapons: Accidents and Incidents During the Period 1 July 1957 Through 31 March 1967,” Technical Letter 20-3, Defense Atomic Support Agency, October 15, 1967 (
SECRET/RESTRICTED DATA
/declassified).

“An Activated Barrier for Protection of Special Nuclear Materials in Vital Areas,” Ronald E. Timm, James E. Miranda, Donald L. Reigle, and Anthony D. Valente, Argonne National Laboraory, 1984.

“The Aftermath of a Single Nuclear Detonation by Accident or Sabotage: Some Problems Affecting U.S. Policy, Military Reactions, and Public Information,” Fred Charles Iklé with J. E. Hill, Research Memorandum, Project RAND, U.S. Air Force, Santa Monica, California, May 8, 1959, RM-2364 (
SECRET/RESTRICTED DATA
/declassified).

“Aggregate Nuclear Damage Assessment Techniques Applied to Western Europe,” H. Avrech and D. C. McGarvey, RAND Corporation, Memorandum RM-4466-ISA, Prepared for the Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense/International Security Affairs, June 1965 (
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
/declassified).

“AGM-69A SRAM Explosive Components Surveillance Program Summary Report and FY74 Service Life Estimate,” Charles E. Stanbery, et al., Aeronautical Systems Division, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, AD-A014 428, January 1975.

“Air Force Blue Ribbon Review of Nuclear Weapons Policies and Procedures,” Polly A. Peyer, Headquarters, United States Air Force, February 8, 2008.

“The Air Force Role in Five Crises, 1958–1965: Lebanon, Taiwan, Congo, Cuba, Dominican Republic,” Bernard C. Nalty, USAF Historical Division Liaison Office, June 1968 (
TOP SECRET
/declassified), NSA.

“The Air Force and Strategic Deterrence 1951–1960,” George F. Lemmer, USAF Historical Division Liaison Office, December 1967 (
SECRET/FORMERLY RESTRICTED DATA
/declassified), NSA.

“The Air Force and the Worldwide Military Command and Control System, 1961–1965 (U),” Thomas A. Sturm, USAF Historical Division Liaison Office, August 1966 (
SECRET
/declassified), NSA.

“Airpower and the Cult of the Offensive,” John R. Carter, CADRE Paper, College of Aerospace Doctrine, Research, and Education, Air University Press, Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama, October 1998.

“Alcohol & Drug Use in the Marine Corps in 1983,” Peter H. Stoloff and Renee K. Barnow, Center for Naval Analyses, CNR 90, Vol. 1, July 1984.

“Analytical Support for the Joint Chiefs of Staff: The WSEG Experience, 1948–1976,” John Ponturo, Institute for Defense Analyses, International and Social Studies Division, IDA Study S-507, July 1979.

“Assessing the Capabilities of Strategic Nuclear Forces: The Limits of Current Methods,” Bruce W. Bennett, N-1441-NA, RAND Corporation, June 1980.

“Assessment Report: Titan II LGM 25 C, Weapon Condition and Safety,” Prepared for the Senate Armed Services Committee and House Armed Services Committee, May 1980.

“Attack Warning: Better Management Required to Resolve NORAD Integration Deficiencies,” Report to the Chairman, Subcommittee on Defense, Committee on Appropriations, House of Representatives, United States General Accounting Office, July 1989.

“The Ballistic Missile Decisions,” Robert L. Perry, RAND Corporation, October 1967.

“Ballistic Missile Staff Course Study Guide,” 4315th Combat Crew Training Squadron, Strategic Air Command, Vandenberg Air Force Base, July 1, 1980.

“Beyond the United Kingdom: Trends in the Other Nuclear Armed States,” Ian Kearns, Discussion Paper 1, BASIC Trident Commission, November 2011.

“A Brief Survey of the Evolution of Ideas About Counterforce,” Alfred Goldberg, Prepared for U.S. Air Force Project RAND, Memorandum RM-5431-PR, October 1967 (revised March 1981), NSA.

“Command, Control, and Communications Problems” Ronald A. Finkler, et al., WSEG Report 159, Volume I: Summary, Institute for Defense Analyses, Science and Technology Division, February 1971 (
TOP SECRET
/declassified).

“Command and Control for North American Air Defense, 1959–1963,” Thomas A. Sturm, USAF Historical Division Liaison Office, SHO-S-65/18, January 1965 (
SECRET
/declassified).

“Command and Control of Soviet Nuclear Weapons: Dangers and Opportunities Arising from the August Revolution,” Hearing Before the Subcommittee on European Affairs of the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate, 102nd Congress, First Session, September 24, 1991.

“Command and Control Systems for Nuclear Weapons: History and Current Status,” Systems Development Department I, Sandia Laboratories, SLA-73-0415, September 1973 (
SECRET/RESTRICTED DATA
/declassified).

“Countervailing Strategy Demands Revision of Strategic Force Acquisition Plans,” Comptroller General of the United States, MASAD-81-355, August 5, 1981.

“Custody,” Assistant to the Secretary of Defense (Atomic Energy), Office of the Secretary of Defense, November 10, 1960 (
TOP SECRET/RESTRICTED DATA/
declassified), NSA.

“Defense Logistics: Improvements Needed to Enhance DOD's Management Approach and Implementation of Item Unique Identification Technology,” United States Government Accountability Office, Report to the Subcommittee on Readiness, Committee on Armed Services, House of Representatives, May 2012.

“Department of Defense Authorization for Appropriations for Fiscal Year 1986,” Hearings Before the Committee on Armed Services United States Senate, Ninety-ninth Congress, 1st Session, 1985.

“Deterrence & Survival in the Nuclear Age,” Security Resources Panel of the Science Advisory Committee, Washington, D.C., November 7, 1957 (
TOP SECRET
/declassified), NSA.

“The Development of the SM-68 Titan,” Warren E. Greene, Historical Office, Deputy Commander for Aerospace Systems, Air Force Systems Command, August 1962 (
SECRET/FORMERLY RESTRICTED DATA
/declassified), NSA.

“The Development of the SM-80 Minuteman,” Robert F. Piper, DCAS Historical Office, Deputy Commander for Aerospace Systems, Air Force Systems Command, April 1962 (
SECRET/RESTRICTED DATA
/declassified), NSA.

“The Development of Strategic Air Command, 1946–1976,” J. C. Hopkins, Office of the Historian, Strategic Air Command, March 21, 1976.

“Did High-Altitude EMP Cause the Hawaiian Streetlight Incident?,” Charles Vittitoe, Electromagnetic Applications Division, Sandia National Laboratories, System Design and Assessment Notes, Note 31, June 1989.

“Effect of Civilian Morale on Military Capabilities in a Nuclear War Environment: Enclosure ‘E,' The Relationship to Public Morale of Information About the Effects of Nuclear Warfare,” WSEG Report No. 42, Weapons Systems Evaluation Group, Joint Chiefs of Staff, October 20, 1959 (
CONFIDENTIAL
/declassified).

“The Effects of Atomic Bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki,” United States Strategic Bombing Survey, June 30, 1946 (
SECRET
/declassified).

“The Effects of Nuclear War,” Office of Technology Assessment, Congress of the United States, May 1979.

“Electric Initiators: A Review of the State of the Art,” Gunther Cohn, Franklin Institute, Prepared for the Picatinny Arsenal, November 1961, AD266014 (
CONFIDENTIAL
/declassified).

“Enclosure ‘I' Changes in the Free World,” Weapons Systems Evaluation Group Report No. 50, November 18, 1960 (
TOP SECRET/RESTRICTED DATA
/declassified).

“The Evaluation of the Atomic Bomb as a Military Weapons,” Enclosure “A,” the Final Report of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Evaluation Board for Operation Crossroads, June 30, 1947 (
TOP SECRET
/declassified).

“Evaluation of Programmed Strategic Offensive Weapons Systems,” Weapons Systems Evaluation Group Report No. 50, Washington, D.C., December 27, 1960 (
TOP SECRET/RESTRICTED DATA
/declassified), NSA.

“The Evolution of U.S. Strategic Command and Control and Warning 1945–1972,” L. Wainstein, Project Leader, C. D. Cremeans, J. K. Moriarity, and J. Ponturo, Study S-467, International and Social Studies Division, Institute for Defense Analyses, June 1975 (
TOP SECRET
/
RESTRICTED DATA/
declassified).

“Exploiting and Securing the Open Border in Berlin: The Western Secret Services, the Stasi, and the Second Berlin Crisis, 1958–1961,” Paul Maddrell, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, Cold War International History Project, Working Paper No. 58, February 2009.

“Factors Affecting the Vulnerability of Atomic Weapons to Fire,” Full-Scale Test Report No. 2, Armour Research Foundation of Illinois Institute of Technology, Armed Forces Special Weapons Project Report No. 1066, February 1958 (
SECRET/RESTRICTED DATA
/declassified).

“The Feasibility of Population Targeting,” R. H. Craver, M. K. Drake, J. T. McGahan, E. Swick, and J. F. Schneider, Science Applications, Inc., Prepared for the Defense Nuclear Agency, June 30, 1979 (
SECRET
/
RESTRICTED DATA
/declassified).

“Final Evaluation Report, MK IV MOD O FM BOMB,” Mk IV Evaluation Committee, Sandia Laboratory, Report No. SL-82, September 13, 1949 (
SECRET/RESTRICTED DATA
/declassified).

“Final Titan II Operational Data Summary,” Rev 3, TRW Space Technology Laboratories, September 1964.

“From Counterforce to Minimal Deterrence: A New Nuclear Policy on the Path Toward Eliminating Nuclear Weapons,” Hans M. Kristensen, Robert S. Norris, Ivan Oelrich, Federation of American Scientists & The Natural Resources Defense Council, Occasional Paper No. 7, April 2009.

“Hearing to Receive Testimony on U.S. Strategic Command and U.S. Cyber Command in Review of the Defense Authorization Request for Fiscal Year 2014 and the Future Years Defense Program,” Committee on Armed Services, United States Senate, 113th Congress, March 12, 2013.

“Historical Analysis of Command and Control Actions in the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis,” Enclosure A, C&C Internal Memorandum No. 40, August 14, 1964 (
TOP SECRET
/declassified), NSA.

“A Historical Study of Strategic Connectivity, 1950–1981,” Joint Chiefs of Staff Special Historical Study, Historical Division, Joint Chiefs of Staff, July 1982 (
TOP SECRET
/declassified), NSA.

“History of Air Defense Weapons, 1946–1962,” Richard F. McMullen, Historical Division Office of Information, Headquarters, Air Defense Command, ADC Historical Study No. 14, 1962.

“A History of the Air Force Atomic Energy Program: 1943–1953,” USAF Historical Division, 1959 (
TOP SECRET/RESTRICTED DATA
/declassified), NSA.

“History of Air Research and Development Command, July–December 1960,” Volume III, Historical Division, Air Research & Development Command, United States Air Force (n.d.) (
SECRET/RESTRICTED DATA
/declassified).

“History of the Custody and Deployment of Nuclear Weapons: July 1945 Through September 1977,” Office of the Assistant to the Secretary of Defense (Atomic Energy), February 1978 (
TOP SECRET/RESTRICTED DATA/FORMERLY RESTRICTED DATA
/declassified).

“History of the Early Thermonuclear Weapons: Mks 14, 15, 16, 17, 24, and 29,” Information Research Division, Sandia National Laboratories, RS 3434/10 (
SECRET/RESTRICTED DATA
/declassified), June 1967.

“History of Headquarters Strategic Air Command, 1961,” SAC Historical Study No. 89, Headquarters, Strategic Air Command, January 1962 (
TOP SECRET
/declassified), NSA.

“History of the Joint Strategic Target Planning Staff: Background and Preparation of SIOP-62,” History & Research Division, Headquarters, Strategic Air Command, 1963 (
TOP SECTRET
/declassified), NSA.

“History of the Joint Strategic Target Planning Staff: Preparation of SIOP-63,” History & Research Division, Headquarters, Strategic Air Command, January 1964 (
TOP SECRET
/declassified), NSA.

“History of the Joint Strategic Target Planning Staff SIOP-4 J/K, July 1971–June 1972,” Dr. Walton S. Moody, Strategic Air Command, History & Research Division (n.d.) (
TOP SECRET/RESTRICTED DATA
/unclassified).

“History of the Little Rock Area Office, Corps of Engineers Ballistic Missile Construction Office, 5 October 1960–31 July 1963,” Arthur R. Simpson, Army Engineers Ballistic Missile Construction Office, 1963.

“The History of Nuclear Weapon Safety Devices,” David W. Plummer and William H. Greenwood, Sandia National Laboratories, Paper Submitted at Joint Propulsion Conference, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, July 1998.

“History of the Redstone Missile System,” John W. Bullard, Historical Division, Army Missile Command, AMC 23 M, October 15, 1965.

“History of the Strategic Air Command, 1 January 1958–30 June 1958,” Historical Study No. 73, Volume 1, Headquarters, Strategic Air Command (n.d.) (
TOP SECRET/RESTRICTED DATA
/declassified).

“History of Strategic Air Command, June 1958–July 1959,” Historical Study No. 76, Volume I, Headquarters, Strategic Air Command (n.d.) (
TOP SECRET/RESTRICTED DATA
/declassified).

“History of the Strategic Air Command: Historical Study #73A SAC Targeting Concepts” Historical Division, Office of Information, Headquarters, Strategic Air Command, 1959 (
TOP SECRET
/declassified), NSA.